Measurement of Food Preferences PDF
Preview Measurement of Food Preferences
Measurement of Food Preferences Measurement of Food Preferences Edited by H.l.H. MAcFIE Head of Department of Consumer Sciences AFRC Institute of Food Research Reading and D.M.H. THOMSON MMR Product and Concept Research The Lord Zuckerman Research Centre Reading SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V. First edition 1994 © 1994 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht OriginalIy published by Chapman & HalI in 1994 Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover Ist edition 1994 Typeset in 10/12 pt Times by Best-set Typesetter Ltd., Hong Kong ISBN 978-1-4613-5908-1 ISBN 978-1-4615-2171-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2171-6 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at the Glasgow address printed on this page. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that maybe made. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Catalog Card No: 93-74907 i§ Printed on acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance with ANSIINISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper) Preface This book provides comprehensive coverage of the numerous methods used to characterise food preference. It brings together, for the first time, the broad range of methodologies that are brought to bear on food choice and preference. Preference is not measured in a sensory laboratory using a trained panel - it is measured using consumers by means of product tests in laboratories, central locations, in canteens and at home, by questionnaires and in focus groups. Similarly, food preference is not a direct function of sensory preference - it is determined by a wide range of factors and influences, some competing against each other, some reinforcing each other. We have aimed to provide a detailed introduction to the measurement of all these aspects, including institutional product development, context effects, variation in language used by consumers, collection and analysis of qualitative data by focus groups, product optimisation, relating prefer ence to sensory perception, accounting for differences in taste sensitivity between consumers, measuring how attitudes and beliefs determine food choice, measuring how food affects mood and mental performance, and how different expectations affect sensory perception. The emphasis has been to provide practical descriptions of current methods. Three of the ten first-named authors are university academics, the rest are in industry or research institutes. Much of the methodology is quite new, particularly the repertory grid coupled with Generalised Procrustes Analysis, Individualised Difference Testing, Food and Mood Testing, and the Sensory Expectation Models. Thanks are due to the publishers for encouraging the text in the first place and for preparing the final copy accurately and quickly. H.J.H.M. D.M.H.T. Contributors A. V. Cardello Consumer Research Branch, Behavioral Sciences Division/Soldier Science Directorate, Department Troop Support Group, RD&E Center, US Army Natick Research, Development and Engineering Center, MA 01760-5020, USA M.A. Casey Minnesota Extension Service, University of Min nesota, 320 Vocational Technical Education Building, 1954 Buford Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA M.T. Conner Department of Psychology, The University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK S. Edwards Consumer Sciences Department, AFRC, Institute of Food Research, Earley Gate, Whiteknights Road, Reading RG6 2EF, UK N. Gains Reading Scientific Services Limited, The Lord Zuckerman Research Centre, University of Reading, Whiteknights, PO Box 234, Reading RG6 2LA, UK M.W. Green Consumer Sciences Department, AFRC, Institute of Food Research, Earley Gate, Whiteknights Road, Reading RG6 2EF, UK K. Greenhotl' MSTS, 54-62 Station Road East, Oxted, Surrey RH8 OPG, UK R.A. Krueger Minnesota Extension Service, University of Min nesota, 320 Vocational Technical Education Building, 1954 Buford Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA H.J.H. MacFie Consumer Sciences Department, AFRC, Institute of Food Research, Earley Gate, White knights Road, Reading RG6 2EF, UK Vlll CONTRIBUTORS H.L. Meiselman Chief, Behavioral Science, Science and Advanced Technology Directorate, Department Troop Support Group, RD&E Center, US Army Natick Research, Development and Engineering Center, MA 01760- 5020, USA H.R. Moskowitz Moskowitz Jacobs Inc., 14 Madison Avenue, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA P.J. Rogers Consumer Sciences Department, AFRC, Institute of Food Research, Earley Gate, Whiteknights Road, Reading RG6 2EF, UK H.G. Schutz Division of Textiles and Clothing, University of California, 129 Everson Hall, Davis, CA 95616, USA R. Shepherd Consumer Sciences Department, AFRC, Institute of Food Research, Earley Gate, White knights Road, Reading RG6 2EF, UK P. Sparks Consumer Sciences Department, AFRC, Institute of Food Research, Earley Gate, White knights Road, Reading RG6 2EF, UK D.M.H. Thomson MMR Product and Concept Research, The Lord Zuckerman Research Centre, Whiteknights, PO Box 234,Reading RG6 2LA, UK now Wallingford House, High Street, Wallingford, Oxford, OXlO ODB, UK. Contents 1 A measurement scheme for developing institutional products 1 H. L. MEISELMAN 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Phase I. Consumer marketing 3 1.2.1 Whom to test 3 1.2.2 What to test 4 1.2.3 How to test 4 1.3 Phase II. Individual item sensory testing 5 1.3.1 Trained and consumer panels 6 1.3.2 Choice of rating scales 7 1.4 Phase III. Consumer meal testing - laboratory 10 1.4.1 What is a meal? 10 1.4.2 Acceptance and consumption 11 1.5 Phase IV. Consumer meal testing - field 12 1.5.1 Realism 12 1.5.2 Test population 12 1.5.3 Adhering to test protocol 13 1.5.4 Item and meal acceptance 13 1.6 Phase V. Prototype testing 15 1.7 Phase VI. Extended ration use validation 18 1.8 Phase VII. Quality control testing 21 1.9 How to use the seven-phase testing sequences 22 References 23 2 Appropriateness as a measure of the cognitive-contextual 25 aspects of food acceptance H.G. SCHUTZ 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Description of procedures for appropriateness, item by use technique 27 2.2.1 Selection of stimuli 27 2.2.2 Format of the questionnaire 31 2.2.3 Selection of respondents 33 2.2.4 Collection of non-appropriateness data 34 2.2.5 Data collection 35 2.2.6 Analysis of appropriateness data 35 2.2.7 Use of principal component analysis 39 2.2.8 Analyses with non-appropriateness data 48 2.3 Conclusions 49 References 49 3 The repertory grid approach 51 N. GAINS 3.1 Introduction 51 3.1.1 Food choice 51 x CONTENTS 3.1.2 Personal construct theory 52 3.2 Methodology 52 3.2.1 Repertory grid method 52 3.2.2 Statistical analysis of repertory grids 53 3.2.3 Generalised Procrustes analysis 54 3.3 Application 54 3.3.1 The different aspects offood choice 54 3.3.2 Investigating the food: general perceptions, sensory characteristics and reasons for choice 55 3.3.3 Investigating consumers 61 3.3.4 Investigating contexts of use 63 3.3.5 Interaction of foods, consumers and context of use 67 3.3.6 Extending repertory grid methodology: laddering, preference mapping and other procedures 74 3.4 Conclusions 74 References 75 4 Focus group interviewing 77 M.A. CASEY and R.A. KRUEGER 4.1 Introduction 77 4.1.1 Advantages and limitations of focus groups 77 4.1.2 Myths about focus groups 78 4.2 The process of conducting focus groups 79 4.2.1 Designing a study 79 4.2.2 Developing the questioning route 81 4.2.3 Recruiting participants 84 4.2.4 Moderating 86 4.2.5 Analysis 90 4.2.0 Validity and reliability - Can we really trust this stuff? 94 4.3 Summary 96 References 96 5 Product optimization: approaches and applications 97 H.R. MOSKOWITZ 5.1 Background and applications 97 5.1.1 What is product optimization? 97 5.1.2 Historical background 97 5.2 Steps in a designed experiment and product optimization study 99 5.2.1 Selection of variables and their levels - systematic versus haphazard designs 101 5.2.2 Questionnaire development 102 5.2.3 Test implementation 105 5.2.4 Analysis of the data - a multi-step process 110 5.3 A case his tory - salsa 111 5.3.1 Experimental design 111 5.3.2 Results 113 5.3.3 Analysis phase 1, R-R analysis 113 5.3.4 Analysis phase 2, S-R (stimulus-response) analysis 118 5.3.5 Three examples of optimization technology 125 5.4 An overview 135 References 136 CONTENTS xi 6 Preference mapping in practice 137 K. GREENHOFF and H.I.H. MACFIE 6.1 Introduction 137 6.1.1 An alternative approach 138 6.2 External preference analysis - Prefmap 139 6.2.1 The method 139 6.2.2 Case study using external analysis 141 6.2.3 Problems with external preference mapping 145 6.3 Internal analysis - MDPREF 146 6.3.1 Method 146 6.3.2 Case study using internal analysis 149 6.4 Advantages and limitations of preference mapping 160 6.5 Aspects of conduct 163 References 165 7 An individualised psychological approach to measuring 167 influences on consumer preferences M.T. CONNER 7.1 Introduction 167 7.2 Measuring individual consumer preferences 167 7.2.1 Acquisition of food preferences 169 7.2.2 Relating determinants to food preferences: the acceptance triangle 170 7.2.3 Principles of consumer preference measurement 173 7.3 Psychophysical acceptance parameters 175 7.3.1 Ideal point (IP) 177 7.3.2 Rejections ratio (RR) 177 7.3.3 Tolerance discrimination ratio (TDR) 178 7.4 Aggregation of individuals' acceptance parameters 182 7.5 Measuring determinants of acceptance in the 'real world' 189 7.5.1 Multiple determinants 189 7.5.2 Unidentified determinants 193 7.5.3 Non-sensory determinants 195 7.6 Conclusions 198 References 198 8 Modelling food choice 202 R. SHEPHERD and P. SPARKS 8.1 Introduction 202 8.2 Factors influencing food choice 202 8.3 Beliefs and attitudes 205 8.4 Application of the theory of reasoned action to food choice 209 8.4.1 Fat intake: the roles of attitudes and nutritional knowledge 209 8.5 Extensions of the theory of reasoned action 212 8.5.1 Perceived control 212 8.5.2 Habit 213 8.5.3 Self-identity 214 8.5.4 Consumption of chips 215 8.5.5 Biscuits and bread 217 8.5.6 Organic vegetables 219 8.6 Conclusions 221 References 223 XlI CONTENTS 9 Nutritional influences on mood and cognitive performance: 227 their measurement and relevance to food acceptance P.I. ROGERS, M.W. GREEN and S. EDWARDS 9.1 Introduction 227 9.2 Relevance to food acceptance of dietary effects on behaviour 227 9.3 Conceptual issues 229 9.3.1 Mood and emotion 229 9.3.2 Arousal, mood and cognitive performance 231 9.3.3 Effects of food on mood and cognitive performance 234 9.4 Methodological issues 236 9.4.1 Experimental design 236 9.4.2 Sensitivity and validity of measures 237 9.4.3 Mood measures 238 9.4.4 Mood induction 241 9.4.5 Measures of cognitive performance 242 9.5 Caffeine: a case study 246 9.6 Summary 248 References 248 10 Consumer expectations and their role in food acceptance 253 A.V. CARDELLO 10.1 Introduction 253 10.1.1 Food acceptance: definition and measurement 253 10.1.2 Overview 255 10.2 The plausible role of expectations in food behavior 256 10.2.1 Oral texture and temperature 257 10.2.2 Flavor 262 10.2.3 Appearance: food and its packaging 267 10.2.4 Ideational effects 273 10.3 Consumer expectations and food acceptance 275 10.3.1 Expectations as a construct 275 10.3.2 Expectations: sensory versus hedonic 277 10.3.3 Models of the effect of disconfirmed expectations 277 10.3.4 Measuring expectations and confirmation/disconfirmation 279 10.4 Experimental studies 281 10.4.1 Sensory disconfirmation 281 10.4.2 Direct manipulation of expectations 283 10.4.3 Direct manipulation of disconfirmation levels 287 10.5 Summary/conclusions 291 References 291 Index 298
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