Mead A. Allison Arthur T. DeGaetano Jay M. Pasachoff

976 Pages·2004·63.58 MB·English

Mead A. Allison
Arthur T. DeGaetano
Jay M. Pasachoff
About the Authors
Mead A. Allison, Ph.D.
Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
Mead Allison received his Ph.D. in oceanography from State University of New
York. He is an associate professor of Earth and environmental sciences at Tulane
University in Louisiana, where he teaches introductory geology and upper-level
courses in sedimentology and marine geology.
Arthur T. DeGaetano, Ph.D.
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
Arthur DeGaetano received his Ph.D. in meteorology from Rutgers University. He
is an associate professor of Earth and atmospheric sciences at Cornell University
in New York, where he teaches introductory climatology and upper-level courses in
atmospheric thermodynamics and physical meteorology. Dr. DeGaetano is also the
director of the Northeast Regional Climate Center.
Jay M. Pasachoff, Ph.D.
Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts
Jay Pasachoff received his Ph.D. in astronomy from Harvard University. He is the
Field Memorial Professor of Astronomy and the director of the Hopkins Observatory
at Williams College in Massachusetts, where he teaches introductory and upper-level
courses in astronomy. In addition, Dr. Pasachoff has written several popular college-
level astronomy textbooks.
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Acknowledgments
Authors Academic Turgay Ertekin, Ph.D. Henry W. Robinson,
Reviewers Professor and Chair of Ph.D.
Mead A. Allison, Ph.D. Petroleum and Natural Meteorologist
Associate Professor Paul Asimow, Ph.D. Gas Engineering Office of Services
Department of Earth Assistant Professor Petroleum and Natural National Weather
and Environmental of Geology and Gas Engineering Service
Sciences Geochemistry Program Silver Spring, Maryland
Tulane University Geological and Planetary Penn State University
New Orleans, Louisiana Sciences University Park, Kenneth H. Rubin,
California Institute of Pennsylvania Ph.D.
Arthur T. DeGaetano, Technology Associate Professor
Ph.D. Pasadena, California Deborah Hanley, Ph.D. Geology and Geophysics
Director, Northeast Meteorologist University of Hawaii
Regional Climate John A. Brockhaus, Florida Division of Manoa, Hawaii
Center Ph.D. Forestry
Associate Professor Professor of Geospatial Department of Daniel Z. Sui, Ph.D.
Department of Earth and Information Science Agriculture and Professor of Geography
Atmospheric Science Geospatial Information Consumer Services and Holder of the
Cornell University Science Program Tallahassee, Florida Reta A. Haynes
Ithaca, New York United States Military Endowed Chair in
Academy Steven Jennings, Ph.D. Geosciences
Jay M. Pasachoff, Ph.D. West Point, New York Associate Professor of Department of
Director, Hopkins Geography Geography
Observatory Wesley N. Colley, Ph.D. Geography and Texas A&M University
Field Memorial Professor Professor of Astronomy Environmental Studies College Station, Texas
of Astronony Department of University of Colorado at
Williams College Astronomy Colorado Springs Vatche P. Tchakerian,
Williamstown, University of Virginia Colorado Springs, Ph.D.
Massachusetts Portsmouth, Virginia Colorado Professor
Geosciences
Feature Roger J. Cuffey, Ph.D. Joel S. Leventhal, Ph.D. Texas A&M University
Professor of Paleontology Emeritus Scientist, College Station, Texas
Development
Department of Geochemistry
Susan Feldkamp Geosciences U.S. Geological Survey Dale E. Wheeler, Ph.D.
Science Writer Penn State University Denver, Colorado Associate Professor of
Manchaca, Texas University Park, Chemistry
Pennsylvania Mark Moldwin, Ph.D. A. R. Smith Department
Associate Professor of
of Chemistry
Inclusion Scott A. Darveau, Space Physics Appalachian State
Specialist Ph.D. Earth and Space University
Associate Professor of Sciences Boone, North Carolina
Ellen McPeek Glisan Chemistry University of California,
Special Needs Consultant Department of Los Angeles
San Antonio, Texas Chemistry Los Angeles, California
University of Nebraska
at Kearney Sten Odenwald, Ph.D.
Kearney, Nebraska Astronomer
Astronomy and Space
Physics
NASA-Goddard Space
Flight Center
Greenbelt, Maryland
Acknowledgments iii
Acknowledgments,
continued
Teacher Reviewers Marie E. McKay Eric Cohen Standardized Test
Earth and Environmental Science Educator Prep Reviewers
Lowell S. Bailey Science Teacher Westhampton Beach
Earth Science Educator Ashbrook High School High School Russell Agostaro
Bedford-North Lawrence Gastonia, North Carolina Westhampton Beach, Program Development
High School New York Specialist
Bedford, Indiana Mike McKee Office of Funded
Science Department Alonda Droege Programs, Newburgh
Shawn Beightol, Chair Science Teacher Enlarged City School
M.S. Ed. Cypress Creek High Highline High School District
Chemistry Teacher School Burien, Washington Newburgh, New York
Michael Krop Senior Orlando, Florida
High School Alexander Dvorak Lou Goldstein
Miami, Florida Christine V. McLelland Science Teacher Staff Development
Distinguished Earth Heritage School Specialist for Middle
David Blinn Science Educator in New York, New York Level Science (retired)
Science Teacher Residence New York City
Wrenshall High School Education and Outreach Randa Flinn, M.S. Department of
Wrenshall, Minnesota Geological Society of Teacher and Science Education
America Curriculum Facilitator New York, New York
Daniel Brownstein, Boulder, Colorado Northeast High School
MAT/MA Broward County, Florida Sheila Lightbourne
Science Department Tammie Niffenegger Curriculum Specialist
Chair Science Chair and Erich Landstrom Okaloosa School District
Hastings High School Teacher NASA SEU Educator Fort Walton Beach,
Hastings, New York Port Washington High Ambassador Florida
School Boynton Beach
Glenn Dolphin Port Washington, Community High Craig Seibert, M. Ed.
Earth Science Teacher Wisconsin School Science Coordinator of
Union-Endicott High Boynton Beach, Florida Collier County Public
School Scott Robertson Schools
Endicott, New York Earth Science and Tammie Niffenegger Collier County Public
Physics Teacher Science Chair and Schools
Alexander Dvorak North Warren Central Teacher Naples, Florida
Science Teacher School District Port Washington High
Heritage School Chestertown, New York School
continued on page 951
New York, New York Port Washington,
Teresa Tucker Wisconsin
Jeanne Endrikat Science Teacher
Science Chair Northwest Community Scott Robertson
Lake Braddock Schools Earth Science and
Secondary School Jackson, Michigan Physics Teacher
Burke, Virginia North Warren Central
School District
Lab Testing
Anthony P. LaSalvia Chestertown, New York
Curriculum Coordinator Shawn Beightol,
and Science Teacher M.S. Ed. Teresa Tucker
New Lebanon Central Chemistry Teacher Science Teacher
Schools Michael Krop Senior Northwest Community
New Lebanon, New York High School Schools
Miami, Florida Jackson, Michigan
Keith A. McKain
Earth Science Teacher
Daniel Brownstein,
Colonel Richardson High
MAT/MA
School
Science Department
Federalsburg, Maryland
Chair
Hastings High School
Hastings, New York
iv Acknowledgments
CONTENTS IN BRIEF
Unit1 STUDYING THE EARTH 2
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Earth Science . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Earth as a System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3 Models of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Unit2 COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH 78
CHAPTER 4 Earth Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5 Minerals of Earth’s Crust . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
6 Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
7 Resources and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
Unit3 HISTORY OF THE EARTH 182
CHAPTER 8 The Rock Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
9 A View of Earth’s Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
Unit4 THE DYNAMIC EARTH 236
CHAPTER 10 Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
11 Deformation of the Crust . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
12 Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
13 Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
Unit5 RESHAPING THE CRUST 340
CHAPTER 14 Weathering and Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
15 River Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .374
16 Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396
17 Glaciers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
18 Erosion by Wind and Waves . . . . . . . . . . . .444
Unit6 OCEANS 468
CHAPTER 19 The Ocean Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
20 Ocean Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
21 Movements of the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
Unit7 ATMOSPHERIC FORCES 544
CHAPTER 22 The Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .546
23 Water in the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
24 Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
25 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
Unit8 SPACE 656
CHAPTER 26 Studying Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
27 Planets of the Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . .684
28 Minor Bodies of the Solar System . . . . . . . . .718
29 The Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .754
30 Stars, Galaxies, and the Universe . . . . . . . . .774
Contents v
CONTENTS
Lab Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii
Safety Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
How to Use Your Textbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxii
1
STUDYING THE EARTH
Unit
Chapter 1 Introduction to Earth Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
SECTION 1 What Is Earth Science? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
SECTION 2 Science as a Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Inquiry Lab Scientific Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Maps in Action Geologic Features and
Political Boundaries in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Feature Article Field Geologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Chapter 2 Earth as a System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
SECTION 1 Earth: A Unique Planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
SECTION 2 Energy in the Earth System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
SECTION 3 Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Skills Practice Lab Testing the Conservation of Mass . . . . . . . . . . 48
Maps in Action Concentration of Plant Life on Earth . . . . . . . . . . 50
Feature Article Biological Clocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Chapter 3 Models of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
SECTION 1 Finding Locations on Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
SECTION 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
SECTION 3 Types of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Making Models Lab Contour Maps: Island Construction . . . . . . . 74
Maps in Action Topographic Map of the Desolation Watershed . . . 76
Environmental
Connection Feature Article Mapping Life on Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
vi Contents
2
COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH
Unit
Chapter 4 Earth Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
SECTION 1 Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
SECTION 2 Combinations of Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Inquiry Lab Physical Properties of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Maps in Action Element Resources in the United States . . . . . . . 100
Feature Article The Smallest Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Chapter 5 Minerals of Earth’s Crust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
SECTION 1 What Is a Mineral? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
SECTION 2 Identifying Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Skills Practice Lab Mineral Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Maps in Action Rock and Mineral Production
in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Feature Article Mining Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Chapter 6 Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
SECTION 1 Rocks and the Rock Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
SECTION 2 Igneous Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
SECTION 3 Sedimentary Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
SECTION 4 Metamorphic Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Skills Practice Lab Classification of Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Maps in Action Geologic Map of Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Feature Article Moon Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
vii
Chapter 7 Resources and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
SECTION 1 Mineral Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
SECTION 2 Nonrenewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
SECTION 3 Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
SECTION 4 Resources and Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Inquiry Lab Blowing in the Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Maps in Action Wind Power in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Feature Article What’s Mined Is Yours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3
HISTORY OF THE EARTH
Unit
Chapter 8 The Rock Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
SECTION 1 Determining Relative Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
SECTION 2 Determining Absolute Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
SECTION 3 The Fossil Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Making Models Lab Types of Fossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Maps in Action Geologic Map of Bedrock in Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Feature Article Clues to Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Chapter 9 A View of Earth’s Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
SECTION 1 Geologic Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
SECTION 2 Precambrian Time and the Paleozoic Era . . . . . . . . . . . 215
SECTION 3 The Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Skills Practice Lab History in the Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Maps in Action Fossil Evidence for Gondwanaland . . . . . . . . . . 234
Environmental Feature Article CT Scanning Fossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Connection
viii Contents
4
THE DYNAMIC EARTH
Unit
Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
SECTION 1 Continental Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
SECTION 2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
SECTION 3 The Changing Continents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Making Models Lab Sea-Floor Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Maps in Action Location of Earthquakes
in South America, 2002–2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Feature Article The Mid-Atlantic Ridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Chapter 11 Deformation of the Crust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
SECTION 1 How Rock Deforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
SECTION 2 How Mountains Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Making Models Lab Continental Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Maps in Action Shear Strain in New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Feature Article The Disappearing Mediterranean . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Chapter 12 Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
SECTION 1 How and Where Earthquakes Happen . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
SECTION 2 Studying Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
SECTION 3 Earthquakes and Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Skills Practice Lab Finding an Epicenter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Maps in Action Earthquake Hazard Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Feature Article Geophysicist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Chapter 13 Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
SECTION 1 Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
SECTION 2 Volcanic Eruptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Making Models Lab Volcano Verdict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Maps in Action The Hawaiian-Emperor Seamount Chain . . . . . . 338
Feature Article The Effects of Volcanoes on Climate . . . . . . . . . . 339
Contents ix
5
RESHAPING THE CRUST
Unit
Chapter 14 Weathering and Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
SECTION 1 Weathering Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
SECTION 2 Rates of Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
SECTION 3 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
SECTION 4 Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Skills Practice Lab Soil Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Maps in Action Soil Map of North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Feature Article Soil Conservationist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Chapter 15 River Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .374
SECTION 1 The Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
SECTION 2 Stream Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
SECTION 3 Stream Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Inquiry Lab Sediments and Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Maps in Action World Watershed Sediment Yield . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Feature Article The Three Gorges Dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Chapter 16 Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396
SECTION 1 Water Beneath the Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
SECTION 2 Groundwater and Chemical Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Chapter Highlights and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Skills Practice Lab Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Maps in Action Water Level in the Ogallala Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . 416
Feature Article Disappearing Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Environmental
Connection
x Contents