McLean Analog Electronics Lecture Notes - UTS

333 Pages·2014·2.41 MB·English

48551
Analog
Electronics

Lecture Notes

2014

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Contents
LECTURE 1 – SIMPLE FILTERS
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1.1
OP-AMP CIRCUITS ................................................................................................. 1.2
INVERTING AMPLIFIER ...................................................................................... 1.4
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER ............................................................................. 1.5
THE VOLTAGE FOLLOWER ................................................................................ 1.6
BILINEAR TRANSFER FUNCTIONS .......................................................................... 1.8
FREQUENCY RESPONSE REPRESENTATION .......................................................... 1.10
MAGNITUDE RESPONSES ..................................................................................... 1.12
PHASE RESPONSES .............................................................................................. 1.16
SUMMARY OF BILINEAR FREQUENCY RESPONSES .......................................... 1.20
BODE PLOTS ........................................................................................................ 1.21
FREQUENCY AND MAGNITUDE SCALING ............................................................. 1.22
FREQUENCY SCALING (DENORMALISING) ...................................................... 1.23
MAGNITUDE SCALING .................................................................................... 1.24
CASCADING CIRCUITS ......................................................................................... 1.25
INVERTING BILINEAR OP-AMP CIRCUIT .............................................................. 1.26
INVERTING OP-AMP CIRCUITS ............................................................................ 1.28
CASCADE DESIGN ................................................................................................ 1.29
QUIZ .................................................................................................................... 1.33
EXERCISES .......................................................................................................... 1.34
PROBLEMS ........................................................................................................... 1.36

LECTURE 2 – BUTTERWORTH LOWPASS FILTERS
SECOND-ORDER PARAMETERS .............................................................................. 2.1
THE LOWPASS BIQUAD CIRCUIT ........................................................................... 2.4
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE LOWPASS BIQUAD CIRCUIT ................................ 2.10
THE UNIVERSAL BIQUAD CIRCUIT ...................................................................... 2.14
APPROXIMATING THE IDEAL LOWPASS FILTER ................................................... 2.17
THE BUTTERWORTH RESPONSE ........................................................................... 2.19
BUTTERWORTH POLE LOCATIONS ....................................................................... 2.20
LOWPASS FILTER SPECIFICATIONS ...................................................................... 2.24
QUIZ .................................................................................................................... 2.30
EXERCISES .......................................................................................................... 2.31
PROBLEMS ........................................................................................................... 2.33

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LECTURE 3 - HIGHPASS AND BANDPASS FILTERS
NEGATIVE FREQUENCY ......................................................................................... 3.1
PROTOTYPE RESPONSE .......................................................................................... 3.2
FREQUENCY TRANSFORMATIONS .......................................................................... 3.3
FOSTER REACTANCE FUNCTIONS ........................................................................... 3.5
HIGHPASS TRANSFORMATION ................................................................................ 3.9
BANDPASS TRANSFORMATION ............................................................................. 3.11
HIGHPASS FILTER DESIGN ................................................................................... 3.14
EXAMPLE ............................................................................................................. 3.18
BANDPASS RESPONSE .......................................................................................... 3.20
BANDPASS FILTER DESIGN .................................................................................. 3.25
BANDPASS POLE LOCATIONS ............................................................................... 3.28
FIRST-ORDER FACTOR .................................................................................... 3.29
SECOND-ORDER FACTORS .............................................................................. 3.30
FRIEND CIRCUIT .................................................................................................. 3.32
EXAMPLE ............................................................................................................. 3.34
QUIZ .................................................................................................................... 3.40
EXERCISES ........................................................................................................... 3.41
PROBLEMS ........................................................................................................... 3.43

LECTURE 4 – PASSIVE COMPONENTS
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 4.1
RESISTOR CHARACTERISTICS................................................................................. 4.2
TOLERANCE ON VALUE ..................................................................................... 4.2
PREFERRED VALUES AND THE DECADE PROGRESSION ..................................... 4.2
THE ‘E’ SERIES VALUES ................................................................................... 4.4
MARKING CODES .............................................................................................. 4.6
STABILITY ......................................................................................................... 4.9
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT (TEMPCO) ............................................................ 4.9
VOLTAGE COEFFICIENT (VOLTCO) ................................................................. 4.11
HUMIDITY EFFECTS ........................................................................................ 4.11
POWER DISSIPATION ....................................................................................... 4.11
VOLTAGE RATING ........................................................................................... 4.13
FREQUENCY EFFECTS ...................................................................................... 4.14
NOISE .............................................................................................................. 4.16
RELIABILITY ................................................................................................... 4.17
DERATING ....................................................................................................... 4.18
RESISTOR TYPES .................................................................................................. 4.19
CARBON COMPOSITION RESISTORS ................................................................. 4.19
CARBON FILM RESISTORS ............................................................................... 4.20
METAL FILM RESISTORS ................................................................................. 4.21
WIRE WOUND RESISTORS ............................................................................... 4.22
CHIP RESISTORS .............................................................................................. 4.23
RESISTOR NETWORKS ..................................................................................... 4.25
CHOOSING RESISTORS ......................................................................................... 4.26
SUMMARY OF RESISTOR CHARACTERISTICS ACCORDING TO TYPE ................. 4.27
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CAPACITOR DEFINITIONS AND BASIC RELATIONS ............................................... 4.28
CAPACITOR CHARACTERISTICS ........................................................................... 4.30
RATED CAPACITANCE AND TOLERANCE ON VALUE ....................................... 4.30
RATED VOLTAGE ............................................................................................ 4.30
SURGE VOLTAGE ............................................................................................ 4.31
LEAKAGE CURRENT ........................................................................................ 4.31
INSULATION (LEAKAGE) RESISTANCE ............................................................ 4.31
MAXIMUM CURRENT ...................................................................................... 4.32
RATED PULSE RISE-TIME ............................................................................... 4.32
RIPPLE CURRENT ............................................................................................ 4.33
TYPES OF DIELECTRICS ....................................................................................... 4.33
NON-POLAR DIELECTRICS .............................................................................. 4.33
POLAR DIELECTRICS ....................................................................................... 4.34
CAPACITOR MODELS ........................................................................................... 4.35
QUALITY OF A CAPACITOR ............................................................................. 4.36
EQUIVALENT SERIES RESISTANCE (ESR) ....................................................... 4.37
SERIES RESONANT FREQUENCY (SRF) ........................................................... 4.38
FILM CAPACITORS ............................................................................................... 4.40
WOUND FOIL CAPACITORS ............................................................................. 4.40
METALLISED FILM CAPACITORS ..................................................................... 4.41
STACKED FILM CAPACITORS .......................................................................... 4.42
BASIC PROPERTIES OF FILM CAPACITOR DIELECTRICS ................................... 4.43
TOLERANCE .................................................................................................... 4.44
RECOMMENDED APPLICATIONS FOR FILM CAPACITORS ................................. 4.45
CERAMIC CAPACITORS ........................................................................................ 4.47
EIA TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT CODES ........................................................ 4.48
CLASS 1 CAPACITOR CODES ............................................................................ 4.48
CLASS 2 CAPACITOR CODES ............................................................................ 4.49
CONSTRUCTION OF CERAMIC CAPACITORS .................................................... 4.50
CHARACTERISTICS OF CERAMIC CAPACITORS ................................................ 4.52
APPLICATIONS OF CERAMIC CAPACITORS ...................................................... 4.54
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS ............................................................................... 4.55
ALUMINIUM ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS ...................................................... 4.55
APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINIUM ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS ......................... 4.59
TANTALUM ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS ....................................................... 4.60
APPLICATIONS OF TANTALUM CAPACITORS ................................................... 4.62
MICA CAPACITORS .............................................................................................. 4.63
GLASS CAPACITORS ............................................................................................ 4.64
CHOOSING CAPACITORS ...................................................................................... 4.65
DECOUPLING CAPACITORS .................................................................................. 4.67

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LECTURE 5 – SENSITIVITY, VARIOUS RESPONSES
SENSITIVITY .......................................................................................................... 5.1
PROPERTIES OF THE SENSITIVITY FUNCTION ..................................................... 5.3
BODE SENSITIVITY ............................................................................................ 5.7
CHEBYSHEV RESPONSE ......................................................................................... 5.9
INVERSE CHEBYSHEV RESPONSE - OVERVIEW ..................................................... 5.16
COMPARISON OF BUTTERWORTH, CHEBYSHEV AND INVERSE CHEBYSHEV
RESPONSES ..................................................................................................... 5.18
CAUER (ELLIPTIC) RESPONSE - OVERVIEW .......................................................... 5.21
PHASE RESPONSES ............................................................................................... 5.22
DELAY EQUALISATION ........................................................................................ 5.27
ALLPASS FILTERS ........................................................................................... 5.27
QUIZ .................................................................................................................... 5.31
EXERCISES ........................................................................................................... 5.32

LECTURE 6 – ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY
PRINCIPLES OF EMC .............................................................................................. 6.1
TYPES OF SOURCES ................................................................................................ 6.2
SUPPLY LINE TRANSIENTS ................................................................................ 6.2
EMP AND RFI ................................................................................................... 6.3
ESD .................................................................................................................. 6.3
INTENTIONAL SOURCES .................................................................................... 6.3
COUPLING .............................................................................................................. 6.4
COMMON IMPEDANCE (“GROUND”) COUPLING ................................................ 6.4
CAPACITIVE COUPLING ..................................................................................... 6.5
INDUCTIVE COUPLING ....................................................................................... 6.6
RADIATED COUPLING ....................................................................................... 6.7
COMBATING EMI .................................................................................................. 6.8
COMBATING CAPACITIVE COUPLING ................................................................ 6.8
COMBATING INDUCTIVE COUPLING ................................................................ 6.12
RF SHIELDING ................................................................................................ 6.15
GROUNDS ........................................................................................................ 6.18
POWER SUPPLY DISTRIBUTION AND DECOUPLING .......................................... 6.21
REGULATORY STANDARDS .................................................................................. 6.24
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 6.27

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LECTURE 7 – PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 7.2
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................................ 7.3
STACKUP ............................................................................................................... 7.5
CONDUCTORS ........................................................................................................ 7.6
POWER PLANES ..................................................................................................... 7.7
SHEET RESISTANCE ............................................................................................... 7.8
INSULATORS .......................................................................................................... 7.9
VIAS .................................................................................................................... 7.10
SPECIAL VIAS ...................................................................................................... 7.13
MANUFACTURING PROCESS ................................................................................ 7.14
PANELS ............................................................................................................... 7.24
TYPICAL ASSEMBLY PROCESS ............................................................................. 7.25
LAYOUT .............................................................................................................. 7.26

LECTURE 8 - DIRECT FILTER REALISATIONS
DIRECT REALISATION ............................................................................................ 8.1
DOUBLY TERMINATED LOSSLESS LADDERS .......................................................... 8.1
FREQUENCY TRANSFORMATIONS ........................................................................ 8.10
LOWPASS TO HIGHPASS .................................................................................. 8.11
LOWPASS TO BANDPASS ................................................................................. 8.12
LADDER DESIGN WITH SIMULATED ELEMENTS ................................................... 8.15
LEAPFROG SIMULATION OF LADDERS ................................................................. 8.23
SWITCHED-CAPACITOR FILTERS ......................................................................... 8.23
IC FILTERS .......................................................................................................... 8.30
DIGITAL FILTERS ................................................................................................. 8.31
IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES OF ACTIVE FILTERS .................................................... 8.33
GAIN BANDWIDTH PRODUCT (GB) ................................................................. 8.33
SLEW RATE .................................................................................................... 8.33
SETTLING TIME ............................................................................................... 8.34
SATURATION .................................................................................................. 8.34
NOISE ............................................................................................................. 8.34
DESIGN VERIFICATION ................................................................................... 8.34
DESIGN TIPS ................................................................................................... 8.35
EXERCISES .......................................................................................................... 8.36

ANSWERS

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1.1
Lecture 1 – Simple Filters
Introduction. Op-amp circuits. Bilinear transfer functions. Transfer function
representation. Magnitude responses. Phase responses. Bode plots. Magnitude
and frequency scaling. Cascading circuits. Inverting op-amp circuit. Cascade
design.
Introduction
Filters are essential to electrical engineering. They are used in all modern
electronic systems. In communications, filters are essential for the generation
Filters are essential
and detection of analog and digital signals, whether via cable, optic fibre, air or to all modern
electronic systems
satellite. In instrumentation, filters are essential in “cleaning up” noisy signals,
or to recover some “special” part of a complicated signal. In control, feedback
through a filter is used to achieve a desired response. In power, filters are used
to inject high frequency signals on the power line for control purposes, or for
removing harmonic components of a current. In machines, filters are used to
suppress the generation of harmonics, or for controlling switching transients.
The design of filters is therefore a useful skill to possess.
Filters can be of two types: analog and digital. In this subject, we will
concentrate on analog filters. There are two reasons for this: analog filters are
necessary components in “digital” systems, and analog filter theory serves as a
precursor to digital filter design. The analog filters we will be looking at will
also be of two types: passive and active. Active filters represent the most
common, and use electronic components (such as op-amps) for their
implementation. This is opposed to passive filters, which use the ordinary
circuit elements: resistors, capacitors, inductors.
Filter has the commonly accepted meaning of something retained, something
rejected. There are many examples of filters in everyday life:
 You’re being a filter right now. You have removed external distractions
and are concentrating on reading these notes. Your brain is filtering out the
unnecessary things going on around you (for a while, anyway).
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1.2
 The media are information filters. They supposedly decide for us what is
important information, and what is not. We rarely have time to investigate
a topic for ourselves, and so we rely on them to pass us the essential points.
The extreme of this is propaganda.
 More tangible filters are sunglasses, tinted windows, ear muffs, air filters,
flour sifters, radios, TVs, etc.
For us, a filter is very simple: it is an electric circuit designed to implement a
specific transfer function. Given a filter, obtaining the transfer function is just a
A filter is a circuit
that implements a matter of applying circuit theory. This is analysis. The choice of a transfer
specific transfer
function function and the choice of an implementation for a filter, however, are never
unique. This is called design.
To firstly analyse, and then design, active analog filters, a review of op-amps,
transfer functions and frequency response is beneficial.
Op-Amp Circuits
A simplified model of an op-amp is:

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For most applications, we assume the op-amp is ideal.
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