McKnight’s physical geography: a landscape appreciation PDF
Preview McKnight’s physical geography: a landscape appreciation
M C K N I G H T ’ S Physical Geography A Landscape Appreciation M C K N I G H T ’ S E L E V E N T H E D I T I O N Physical Geography A Landscape Appreciation DARREL HESS City College of San Francisco DENNIS TASA Illustrated by Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Geography Editor: Christian Botting Full Service Project Manager: Katy Gabel Senior Marketing Manager: Maureen McLaughlin Photo and Illustration Support: Kevin Lear, International Mapping Senior Project Editor: Crissy Dudonis Design Manager: Mark Ong Director of Development: Jennifer Hart Interior and Cover Design: Wanda Espana, Wee Design Executive Development Editor: Jonathan Cheney Photo Manager: Maya Melenchuk Media Producer: Ziki Dekel Photo Researcher: Kristin Piljay Assistant Editor: Kristen Sanchez Text Permissions Manager: Joseph Croscup Editorial Assistant: Bethany Sexton Text Permissions Researcher: Brian Wysock Senior Marketing Assistant: Nicola Houston Operations Specialist: Michael Penne Managing Editor, Geosciences and Chemistry: Gina M. Cheselka Front Cover and Title Page: Nathan Danks/Fotolia Production Project Manager: Edward Thomas Icons for Focus, People and the Environment, and Energy for the Full Service/Composition: PreMediaGlobal 21st Century features: Shutterstock Credits and acknowledgments for materials (including photos) borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on pages C1-C4. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008, 2005Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means: electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, 1 Lake Street, Department 1G, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hess, Darrel. McKnight’s physical geography : a landscape appreciation / Darrel Hess ; illustrated by Dennis Tasa. — 11th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-321-82043-3 (hardcover : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-321-82043-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Physical geography. I. McKnight, Tom L. (Tom Lee). 1928–2004 Physical geography. II. Title. III. Title: Physical geography. GB54.5.H47 2013 910’.02—dc23 2012039478 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10—DOW—16 15 14 13 12 ISBN-10: 0-321-82043-6; ISBN-13: 978-0-321-82043-3 (Student Edition) www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN-10: 0-321-86404-2; ISBN-13: 978-0-321-86404-8 (Instructor’s Review Copy) BRIEF CONTENTS 1 Introduction to Earth 2 2 Portraying Earth 30 3 Introduction to the Atmosphere 54 4 Insolation and Temperature 76 5 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind 108 6 Atmospheric Moisture 140 7 Atmospheric Disturbances 176 8 Climate and Climate Change 206 9 The Hydrosphere 252 10 Cycles and Patterns in the Biosphere 280 11 Terrestrial Flora and Fauna 306 12 Soils 344 13 Introduction to Landform Study 374 14 The Internal Processes 400 15 Preliminaries to Erosion: Weathering and Mass Wasting 446 16 Fluvial Processes 466 17 Karst and Hydrothermal Processes 498 18 The Topography of Arid Lands 514 19 Glacial Modification of Terrain 540 20 Coastal Processes and Terrain 572 APPENDIXI The International System of Units (SI) A-1 APPENDIXII U.S. Geological Survey Topographic Maps A-3 APPENDIXIII Meteorological Tables A-8 APPENDIXIV The Weather Station Model A-13 APPENDIX V Köppen Climate Classification A-19 APPENDIX VI Biological Taxonomy A-21 APPENDIX VII The Soil Taxonomy A-23 v GEOSCIENCE ANIMATION LIBRARY Animation Convection and Plate Tectonics Covering the most difficult-to-visualize topics in physical geography, the Geoscience Animations can be accessed by students with mobile devices through Quick Response Codes in the book, or through the Study Area. Teachers can assign these media with assessments in . 1 Introduction to Earth 14 TheInternal Processes Solar System Formation Plate Boundaries Earth-Sun Relations Seafloor Spreading 2 PortrayingEarth Paleomagnetism Map Projections Convection and Plate Tectonics 3 Introduction to the Atmosphere Divergent Boundaries Subduction Zones Ozone Depletion Collision of India with Eurasia Coriolis Effect 4 Insolation and Temperature Transform Faults and Boundaries Assembly and Breakup of Pangaea Atmospheric Energy Balance Mantle Plumes Ocean Circulation Patterns—Subtropical Gyres Terrane Formation Global Warming Volcanoes 5 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind Formation of Crater Lake Development of Wind Patterns The Eruption of Mount St. Helens Cyclones and Anticyclones Igneous Features Global Atmospheric Circulation Folding The Jet Stream and Rossby Waves Faulting Seasonal Pressure and Precipitation Patterns Seismic Waves El Niño Seismographs 6 Atmospheric Moisture 15 Preliminaries to Erosion: Weathering Hydrologic Cycle and Mass Wasting Phase Changes of Water Mechanical Weathering Adiabatic Processes and Atmospheric Stability Mass Wasting Seasonal Pressure and Precipitation Patterns Eruption of Mount St. Helens 7 Atmospheric Disturbances 16 Fluvial Processes Cold Fronts Stream Sediment Movement Warm Fronts Oxbow Lake Formation Midlatitude Cyclones Floods and Natural Levee Formation Hurricanes Stream Terrace Formation Tornadoes 18 TheTopography of Arid Lands 8 Climate and Climate Change Wind Transportation of Sediment Seasonal Pressure and Precipitation Patterns Desert Sand Dunes End of the Last Ice Age 19 Glacial Modification of Terrain Orbital Variations and Climate Change End of the Last Ice Age 9 The Hydrosphere Isostasy Hydrologic Cycle Flow of Ice within a Glacier Tides Glacial Processes Ocean Circulation Patterns—Subtropical Gyres Orbital Variations and Climate Change Ocean Circulation Patterns—Global Conveyor-Belt 20 Coastal Processes and Terrain Circulation Wave Motion and Wave Refraction The Water Table Tsunami Groundwater Cone of Depression 10 Cycles and Patterns in the Biosphere Tides Coastal Sediment Transport Net Primary Productivity Movement of Barrier Island Biological Productivity in Midlatitude Oceans Coastal Stabilization Structures 13 Introduction to Landform Study Seamounts & Coral Reefs Metamorphic Rock Foliation Isostasy vi VIDEOS Video Hurricane Sandy Videos providing engaging visualizations and real world examples of physical geography concepts can be accessed by students with mobile devices through Quick Response Codes in the book, or through the Study Area. Teachers can assign these media with assessments in . 2 PortrayingEarth 8 Climate and Climate Change Studying Fires Using Multiple Satellite Sensors 20,000 years of Pine Pollen Temperature and Agriculture 3 Introduction to the Atmosphere Ozone Hole 9 The Hydrosphere Coriolis Effect Merry-Go-Round Hydrologic Cycle 4 Insolation and Temperature 10 Cycles and Patterns in the Biosphere Seasonal Radiation Patterns Global Carbon Uptake by Plants Seasonal Changes in Temperature 11 Terrestrial Flora and Fauna 5 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind Climate, Crops, and Bees El Niño La Niña 13 Introduction to Landform Study Black Smokers 6 Atmospheric Moisture Hydrologic Cycle 20 Coastal Processes and Terrain Global Precipitation Movement of Sand in Beach Compartment Summertime/Wintertime Beach Conditions 7 Atmospheric Disturbances Hurricane Hot Tower 2005 Hurricane Season Hurricane Sandy vii CONTENTS GEOSCIENCE ANIMATION LIBRARY vi 2 Portraying Earth 30 GEOSCIENCE VIDEO LIBRARY vii PREFACE xvii ABOUT OUR SUSTAINABILITY INITIATIVES xxii Maps and Globes 31 ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxiii Maps 32 BOOKAND MasteringGeography WALKTHROUGH xxiv Map Scale 33 Scale Types 33 Large and Small Map Scales 34 1 Introduction to Map Projections and Properties 35 Earth 2 Map Projections 35 Map Properties 35 Families of Map Projections 36 Cylindrical Projections 36 Geography and Science 3 Planar Projections 37 Studying the World Geographically 4 Conic Projections 38 The Process of Science 6 Pseudocylindrical Projections 38 Numbers and Measurement Systems 7 Conveying Information on Maps 39 Environmental Spheres and Earth Systems 7 Map Essentials 39 Earth’s Environmental Spheres 7 Isolines 40 Earth Systems 8 Portraying the Three-Dimensional Landscape 42 Earth and the Solar System 10 GPS—The Global Positioning System 42 The Solar System 10 Remote Sensing 44 The Size and Shape of Earth 11 Aerial Photographs 44 The Geographic Grid—Latitude and Longitude 13 Visible Light and Infrared Sensing 44 Latitude 14 FOCUS ▶Using Remote Sensing Images to Study a Landscape 45 Longitude 15 Thermal Infrared Sensing 46 Locating Points on the Geographic Grid 17 Multispectral Remote Sensing 46 Earth–Sun Relations and the Seasons 17 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 49 Earth Movements 18 Tools of the Geographer 50 The Annual March of the Seasons 19 Seasonal Transitions 22 Significance of Seasonal Patterns 23 3 Introduction to the Telling Time 24 Atmosphere 54 Standard Time 24 International Date Line 25 Daylight-Saving Time 26 Size and Composition of the Atmosphere 55 Size of Earth’s Atmosphere 56 Development of Earth’s Modern Atmosphere 56 Composition of the Modern Atmosphere 57 Permanent Gases 57 Variable Gases 57 Particulates (Aerosols) 58 viii Contents ix Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere 59 Land and Water Temperature Contrasts 94 Thermal Layers 59 Warming of Land and Water 94 Pressure 60 Cooling of Land and Water 95 Composition 61 Implications 95 Human-Induced Atmospheric Change 62 Mechanisms of Global Energy Transfer 95 Depletion of the Ozone Layer 62 Atmospheric Circulation 96 Air Pollution 64 Oceanic Circulation 96 PEOPLEAND THEENVIRONMENT▶The UV Index 65 Vertical Temperature Patterns 98 Energy Production and the Environment 67 Environmental Lapse Rate 98 Weather and Climate 67 Average Lapse Rate 99 ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY ▶Our Continuing Temperature Inversions 99 Dependence on Fossil Fuels 68 Global Temperature Patterns 100 The Elements of Weather and Climate 69 Prominent Controls of Temperature 100 The Controls of Weather and Climate 69 Seasonal Patterns 101 The Coriolis Effect 71 Annual Temperature Range 102 Measuring Earth’s Surface Temperature by Satellite 103 4 Insolation and Climate Change and “Global Warming” 103 Temperature Change During Twentieth Century 104 Temperature 76 Increasing Greenhouse Gas Concentrations 104 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 105 The Impact of Temperature on the Landscape 77 5 Atmospheric Pressure Energy, Heat, and Temperature 78 and Wind 108 Energy 78 Temperature and Heat 79 Measuring Temperature 79 The Impact of Pressure and Wind on the Solar Energy 80 Landscape 110 Electromagnetic Radiation 80 The Nature of Atmospheric Pressure 110 ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY▶Solar Power 81 Factors Influencing Atmospheric Pressure 110 Insolation 83 Mapping Pressure with Isobars 112 Basic Warming and Cooling Processes in the The Nature of Wind 112 Atmosphere 83 Direction of Movement 113 Radiation 83 Wind Speed 114 Absorption 83 Cyclones and Anticyclones 115 Reflection 84 The General Circulation of the Atmosphere 116 Scattering 84 ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY▶Wind Power 117 Transmission 85 Idealized Circulation Patterns 118 Conduction 86 Seven Components of the General Circulation 119 Convection 87 Subtropical Highs 119 Advection 87 Trade Winds 121 Adiabatic Cooling and Warming 87 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) 122 Latent Heat 88 The Westerlies 122 Earth’s Solar Radiation Budget 88 Polar Highs 124 Long-Term Energy Balance 88 Polar Easterlies 125 Earth’s Energy Budget 89 Polar Front 125 Variations in Insolation by Latitude and Season 90 Vertical Patterns of the General Circulation 125 Latitudinal and Seasonal Differences 90 Modifications of the General Circulation 126 FOCUS▶Monitoring Earth’s Radiation Budget 91 Seasonal Variations in Location 126 Latitudinal Radiation Balance 92 Monsoons 127
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