McGILL UNIVERSITY A Part of and Apart from the Mosaic

367 Pages·2012·4.33 MB·English

McGILL UNIVERSITY

A Part of and Apart from the Mosaic: a Study of Pakistani Canadians’ Experiences in
Toronto during the 1960s and 1970s

Tanya Sabena Khan

A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Department of History

McGill University
Montreal, Québec
November 2012

© Tanya Sabena Khan, 2012
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ABSTRACT
A Part of and Apart from the Mosaic: a Study of Pakistani Canadians’ Experiences
in Toronto during the 1960s and 1970s
Tanya Sabena Khan Supervisor:
McGill University Professor John Zucchi

This thesis examines the experiences of the first wave of Pakistani immigrants to
arrive in Canada after the immigration reforms of the 1960s and 1970s. It focuses largely
on the Pakistani community in Toronto. Its primary thesis is that while the immigration
reforms and accompanying national policy of multiculturalism of this era were intended
to foster democratic, humanitarian, and egalitarian principles, Pakistanis, like other
immigrants of colour, actually saw their efforts to join the social and economic
mainstream thwarted by discrimination both at the hands of government officials and
within Canadian society.
The thesis makes extensive use of a wide range of primary materials, including
government documents, municipal records, commissioned reports, symposia proceedings,
mainstream and Pako-Canadian newspapers, community newsletters, and interviews.
Individual chapters examine: the background, social characteristics, and immigration and
settlement experiences of Pakistani immigrants to Canada and Toronto during the 1960s
and 1970s; the establishment and administration of immigration reforms and
multiculturalism policies during these decades, with an emphasis on the ways that
discriminatory government policies and traditions toward Pakistanis and other immigrants
of colour carried over and continued to impact the era of progressive reform; the growth
of intense anti-immigrant attitudes and the rise of “Paki-bashing” and other episodes
steeped in discrimination and violence in Toronto during the 1970s; prejudice and other
challenges faced by Pako-Canadians as they attempted to make a living within Toronto’s
economy; and issues of gender and the experiences of Pako-Canadian women in Toronto
during the 1960s and 1970s.
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ABSTRACT
A Part of and Apart from the Mosaic: a Study of Pakistani Canadians’ Experiences
in Toronto during the 1960s and 1970s
Tanya Sabena Khan Supervisor:
McGill University Professor John Zucchi

La présente thèse traite du vécu de la première vague d’immigrants pakistanais au
Canada, soit celle qui est postérieure aux réformes du système d’immigration canadien
des années 1960 et 1970. Elle est principalement focalisée sur la communauté
pakistanaise de Toronto. Cette thèse soutient essentiellement l’hypothèse suivante : en
dépit du fait que les réformes du système d’immigration, ainsi que celles apportées aux
politiques nationales afférentes sur le multiculturalisme, bien qu’elles étaient destinées à
étayer des principes démocratiques, humanitaires et égalitaires, les pakistanais, à l’instar
d’autres immigrants de couleur, ont vu leurs efforts destinés à s’intégrer à la classe
moyenne canadienne contrecarrés par des pratiques discriminatoires émanant tant de la
part des fonctionnaires du gouvernement que de celle de la société canadienne elle-même.
Cette thèse s’appuie sur un vaste éventail documentaire issu de sources primaires,
comprenant des documents gouvernementaux, des dossiers municipaux, des rapports
produits par des commissions, des comptes rendus de symposiums, des articles de
journaux torontois à grand tirage, des bulletins communautaires de pakistano-canadiens et
des interviews. Les divers chapitres qui la composent ont pour objet de scruter les thèmes
suivants: les antécédents, les caractéristiques sociales ainsi que le processus
d’immigration et l’établissement d’immigrants pakistanais au Canada, tout
particulièrement à Toronto, durant les décennies 1960 et 1970 ; la mise en œuvre et
l’administration des réformes de l’immigration et des politiques afférentes au
multiculturalisme à cette époque, en mettant l’accent sur les manières dont les politiques
gouvernementales discriminatoires envers les pakistanais et les autres immigrants de
couleur se sont perpétuées et ont continué d’avoir un impact significatif sur l’immigration
et ce, même pendant l’ère des réformes dites progressistes ; l’intensification d’attitudes
négatives envers les immigrants et la montée d’un ressentiment anti-pakistanais, couplées
à d’autres évènements qui profilèrent l’entrée en scène de la discrimination et de la
violence à Toronto pendant les années 1970 ; la discrimination et les autres défis auxquels
étaient confrontés les pakistano-canadiens alors qu'ils tentaient de gagner leur vie au
coeur de l'économie torontoise de l’époque ; les problématiques particulières reliées à leur
sexe et les expériences de vie des femmes pakistano-canadiennes de Toronto au cours des
années 1960 et 1970.
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PREFACE

This thesis was inspired, in part, by a phone call I received in the early 2000s. I
was at my parent’s home in the Laurentians when I received a call from a government
agent asking to speak with Akhlaq Khan. I informed her that my father was not available
and offered to take a message. She asked if I was a relative and I confirmed that I was his
daughter. She seemed pleased and proceeded to ask me personal questions about my
father. I reminded her that my father would be back shortly and she should communicate
directly with him. She was surprised and said “It’s just that many of these immigrants
designate a family member to answer questions, since they don’t always speak or
understand English very well.” I quickly informed her that my father has an excellent
command of English not only because he has lived in Canada as a citizen for the over 30
years, but one of the reasons he was selected as a “desirable” immigrant was for his
language skills. She was dismissive of this information.
I found her comments or misinformed ideas of immigrants disturbing. Growing
up with a father who had immigrated to Canada in the late 1960s as a qualified accountant
exposed me to a certain understanding of these immigrants. It was always a joke among
my siblings and I that if our parents introduced us to a new “aunty or uncle”- a term used
indiscriminately for anyone of my parent’s friends or acquaintances-that he or she was
either a doctor, engineer, or accountant. Indeed, the majority of those in my parent’s
social circle were professionals who immigrated to Canada with established credentials;
many would go on to enhance their educations by attending Canadian universities. My
brothers, sisters, and I thought that this was normal and that all immigrants to Canada
were like my father and his friends. To a great degree we were right. The majority of
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independent immigrants, particularly immigrants of colour, who came to Canada from
Pakistan during the 1960s and 1970s, were affluent, urban and professional.
As a student of Canadian history I was often drawn to the stories of immigrants
and was especially interested in learning how immigrants such as the Ukrainians,
Germans, Italians, Macedonians, Chinese, Japanese, and Sikhs were incorporated into to
Canada. What was missing in these historical accounts, however, was how my father and
his fellow Pakistanis fit into this picture. Disappointed by the lack of works that dealt
with my own family and community, I decided to study Pakistani immigrants, to explore
their lives and experiences within Canada.
My examination of the experiences of the first major wave of Pakistani
immigration to Canada during the 1960s and 1970s led me to a central conclusion, a
realization that there was a basic contradiction between what Pakistani migrants expected
to encounter and what they in fact did encounter as they established new lives in Canada.
During these years, Canada fundamentally changed its immigration policies, adopting
progressive reforms and a formal national policy on non-discrimination and
multiculturalism. These reforms opened the door to immigration from Pakistan and many
other regions of the world that had previously been closed to Canadian immigration. The
first wave of Pakistanis arrived in Canada enthusiastically embracing the new policy of
openness and equality. They were optimistic about their ability to adapt to and find a
satisfying place within Canadian society, believing themselves to be ideal candidates for
rapid integration and looking forward to contributing to Canada’s social, cultural, and
economic development. In reality, however, they often found that the actual
administration of national policies was not always in line with their stated progressive
ideals. Often they encountered forces such as discrimination and suspicion, both at the
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hands of the government and Canadian society itself. These forces undermined their sense
of hope, impeded their economic progress, and worked against their integration into the
mainstream of Canadian society. Hence, the title A Part of and Apart from the Mosaic: a
Study of Pakistani Canadians’ Experiences in Toronto during the 1960s and 1970ss.1
This thesis has been a long (a very long) and winding journey filled with triumphs
and tribulations. Like any life journey, one seldom travels alone. I have been fortunate
and must offer my sincere gratitude to the many people who have helped.
First, I would like to acknowledge my supervisor Professor John Zucchi for his
years of patience, understanding, and insight. Professor Leonard Moore has also been an
absolute beacon of support and encouragement and must be recognized for his keen
advice, many suggestions, generously extending his time, and being dedicated fully to
helping me with this project. I am also grateful to Professor Brian Lewis, Professor
Jarrett Rudy, Professor Ratna Ghosh, and Professor Joseph Rochford for the interest they
have shown my work and serving on my committee. The final version of this thesis has
been improved significantly by the comments, suggestions, and efforts provided by
Professor Hugh Johnston. I am deeply indebted to the time and attention he has given this
work.

1 I would also like to credit a book I read, which was a collection of essays on South Asians in America, for
the inspiration behind my title choice. The book was entitled A Part, Yet Apart: South Asians in America
and discussed the complexities of South Asian incorporation into the larger “Asian American” label. This
was a process complicated by the fact that many other Asians, who comprised largely of those originating
from East/Southeast Asia, did not see South Asians and themselves as belonging to the same or similar
ethnic groups. Likewise, South Asians did not always feel that they belonged under this broad “Asian”
categorization. Even those South Asians who sought to join in the “Asian American fray,” were not always
welcomed to do so and according to sociologist Nazali Kibria, “South Asian claims to legitimate ‘Asian
Americanness’ [were] suspect because of perceived racial differences.” See Nazali Kibria, “The Racial
Gap: South Asian American Racial Identity and the Asian American Movement” in Lavina Dhingra
Shankar and Rajini Srikanth (eds.), A Part, Yet Apart: South Asian in Asian America Philadelphia: Temple
University Press, 1998), 69-78. I thought the idea of being a part of a grander context, while at the same
time being apart or excluded from mainstream categorizations and institutions was an appropriate way to
describe some of the early experiences Pakistanis had when seeking inclusion into the broader Canadian
society.
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I would also like to thank Colleen Parish who has tirelessly worked to help me
with my many years of “McGill needs” and has also been a strong source of moral
support. I would also like to wholeheartedly acknowledge Professor John Hill for his help
with acquainting me with a myriad of South Asian experts, and inspiring me to go
forward when I felt I had come to a dead end. Professor Micheline Lessard has also given
me precious insight and has helped me immensely is so many ways. I would also like to
thank Mitali Das for her competence and concern.
In undertaking this project, I soon realized that researching Pakistanis would
prove trying since there seemed to be no easy way of finding many of the sources needed
for this project. A number of people and institutions came to my aid. First, I must offer
my earnest gratitude to Sadiq Awan, whose knowledge and wisdom was invaluable. He
was not only generous with his time, but also gave me access to numerous documents that
were essential to this thesis. Mubarka Alam also merits my sincerest thanks not only
because of her support and interest in this project but also for the rich resources she
provided. Status of Women and Heritage Canada personally supplied me with several
reports and academic works. The staff at Citizenship and Immigration Canada library
along with Brit Braaten and Pasang from the MHSO were beyond helpful and allowed me
to spend countless hours in their facility searching for the various documents and items I
needed. I would also like to thank Bill Crawford at the Ontario Grievance Settlement
Board and Dan Martin at the Department of Homeland Security in Washington D.C.
Mubarka Alam, Salma Ahmed, and all the other Pakistani women who invited me
into their homes and so generously shared their stories, deserve my deepest appreciation.
I would also like to extend my gratitude to Rashid and Nanita Ali, Anzar and Suzanne
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Burney, Mohammed and Ghislaine Khan, Mushtaq Ahmed, Razi Syed, Barbra Siddiqui,
and Shummi.
Jami Taylor, Charity Clark, Sonya Kirin Khan, Daoud Khan, Jocelyne Smallian-
Khan, Ann Smallian, Ann Foster, Claude Lamb, Eve Van Stock, Stephanie Robins, Kasia
and Tracey Meyerlewski, Sabrina Gross, Peachy Caparoso, M. Gonchar, Kimberly and
Paul Berry, S.P. Mouphassah, and H.H. Ferdinand, Mamadu Djalo, have all given me the
gifts of their friendship, time, and wisdom. Especial thanks must be extended to Daniel
Patrick Cadieux for his invaluable support, skills, and insight.
This process has not been easy and I must acknowledge the support and love I
received from my siblings, in-laws, cousins, my Aunty Bergees and Uncle Iqbal, my
Aunty Moon, and also Tata Jami. I would also like to thank my niece Katheryne and the
newest member of the family-my nephew-Danyk- for being a constant source of light
even during darker days. My brother, and friend, Zishann Ahmed Khan merits my
sincerest acknowledgement. Shann, who perhaps has more library books on his Ottawa U
account concerning Canadian immigration, ethnic, and gender studies, than he does on his
own specialty, Geology, has been “rock solid” with his support, encouragement,
suggestions, and technological savvy.
My loving partner, Mamadu Djam Ba, has been a source of inspiration from the
moment we met. His uncanny ability to think ‘outside the box,’ his motivation, and
confidence in me has given me the power to continue during the more difficult moments
of this journey.
Above all this thesis is dedicated to my parents Akhlaq Ahmad Khan and Patricia
Ann Ferrier who have given me more than words can say.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... ii
RÉSUMÉ .......................................................................................................................... iii
PREFACE .......................................................................................................................... iv
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER ................................................................................... 1-30
Canadian Immigration and Ethnic History ................................................................................. 9
Studies on South Asians and Pakistanis ...................................................................................... 15
Methodology .................................................................................................................................. 20

CHAPTER ONE
A JOURNEY OF HOPE: FROM PAKISTAN TO CANADA ............................... 31-81
After Partition ................................................................................................................. 32
Pakistani Outmigration to the United Kingdom 1950s and 1960s ............................. 38
Opening the Door: Progressive National Policies in the 1960s and 1970s ................. 45
Pakistanis in Canada ...................................................................................................... 51
Pakistanis and Islam ................................................................................................................. 65
Muslim Organizations in Toronto ......................................................................................... 74
CHAPTER TWO
“STEMMING THE FLOOD”: CANADIAN IMMIGRATION,
MULTICULTURALISM AND PAKISTANIS DURING THE 1960s 1970s ...... 82-138
The 1962 Policy ............................................................................................................................. 83
Economics, Self-Interest, Demographics, and “Brain Drain” ................................................. 86
Biases and Preferential Treatment 1962-1966 ........................................................................... 90
“Turning the Tide”: Looking at South Asians and Other Immigrants of Colour ................. 98
The 1967 Points System ............................................................................................................. 102
The Policy of Multiculturalism .................................................................................................. 109
Pakistanis and Multiculturalism ................................................................................................ 119
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A Turn for the Worst: The mid 1970s, The Green Paper, Reactions and Actions ............... 123
The 1976 Canadian Immigration Act ........................................................................................ 133
CHAPTER THREE
“PAKI GO HOME”: RACISM AND VIOLENCE IN TORONTO
DURING THE 1970s ............................................................................................. 139-189
Racist Ideology and Canadian Immigration ............................................................................ 140
Canadian Opinions: National Surveys and Commissioned Studies ...................................... 143
Contextual Shifts and Anti-Immigrant Attitudes in Toronto ................................................ 150
Origins of “Paki-Bashing” ........................................................................................................ 155
“Paki-Bashing” Comes to Canada ............................................................................................ 157
“Paki-Bashing” and Other Forms of Violence ........................................................................ 163
Dashed Hopes: Pako-Canadian Changing Perceptions .......................................................... 172
Reports and Actions Pertaining to South Asians on Racial Problems in Toronto ............... 175
Combating Racism: Pakistani Agency ...................................................................................... 183
CHAPTER FOUR
“CANADA NEEDS OUR SKILLS”: PAKISTAN AND THEIR STRUGGLES FOR
JOB EQUITY IN TORONTO DURING THE 1960S AND 1970S ................... 190-228
The Economy and Professional/Skilled Immigrants ............................................................... 191
Canadian Studies and Reports on the Employment of Immigrants ...................................... 192
Ontario and Toronto Studies .................................................................................................... 195
Professional Orders and the College of Physicians and Surgeons ......................................... 198
Pakistani Realities in Toronto ................................................................................................... 204
Pakistani Female Experiences on the Job Front ..................................................................... 216
Multiculturalism and the Workforce ...................................................................................... 225
CHAPTER FIVE
THEIR STORIES: PAKISTANI WOMEN AND THEIR EXPERIENCES IN
TORONTO, 1967-1980 .......................................................................................... 229-280
Women, Gender, Immigration, and Ethnic Studies in Canada ............................................. 230
Interviews .................................................................................................................................... 236
Marriage and Migration ............................................................................................................ 237
False Pretences and Canadian Realities ................................................................................... 246