Materials chemistry PDF
Preview Materials chemistry
Materials Chemistry Materials Chemistry Second Edition by Bradley D. Fahlman CentralMichiganUniversity, MountPleasant,MI,USA BradleyD.Fahlman CentralMichiganUniversity MountPleasant,MI USA ISBN978-94-007-0692-7 e-ISBN978-94-007-0693-4 DOI10.1007/978-94-007-0693-4 SpringerDordrechtHeidelbergLondonNewYork LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2011923428 #SpringerScience+BusinessMediaB.V.2011 Nopartofthisworkmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyany means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permissionfromthePublisher,withtheexceptionofanymaterialsuppliedspecificallyforthepurpose ofbeingenteredandexecutedonacomputersystem,forexclusiveusebythepurchaserofthework. Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia(www.springer.com) Contents Preface......................................................................... ix Chapter1. WHATISMATERIALSCHEMISTRY? .................... 1 1.1 HISTORICALPERSPECTIVES.................................. 2 1.2 CONSIDERATIONSINTHEDESIGN OFNEWMATERIALS ........................................... 5 1.3 DESIGNOFNEWMATERIALSTHROUGH A“CRITICALTHINKING”APPROACH ....................... 6 Chapter2. SOLID-STATECHEMISTRY............................... 13 2.1 AMORPHOUSVS.CRYSTALLINESOLIDS ................... 13 2.2 TYPESOFBONDINGINSOLIDS............................... 14 2.2.1 IonicSolids................................................. 15 2.2.2 MetallicSolids............................................. 16 2.2.3 CovalentNetworkSolids .................................. 18 2.2.4 MolecularSolids........................................... 18 2.3 THECRYSTALLINESTATE .................................... 22 2.3.1 CrystalGrowthTechniques................................ 26 2.3.2 CrystalStructures.......................................... 29 2.3.3 CrystalSymmetryandSpaceGroups...................... 56 2.3.4 X-RayDiffractionfromCrystallineSolids................ 65 2.3.5 CrystalImperfections...................................... 74 2.3.6 PhysicalPropertiesofCrystals ............................ 88 2.3.7 BondinginCrystallineSolids:Introduction toBandTheory............................................. 103 2.4 THEAMORPHOUSSTATE...................................... 113 2.4.1 Sol-GelProcessing......................................... 114 2.4.2 Glasses ..................................................... 125 2.4.3 CementitiousMaterials .................................... 136 2.4.4 Ceramics ................................................... 139 v vi Contents Chapter3. METALS ...................................................... 157 3.1 MININGANDPROCESSINGOFMETALS..................... 157 3.1.1 PowderMetallurgy......................................... 171 3.2 METALLICSTRUCTURESANDPROPERTIES............... 177 3.2.1 PhaseBehaviorofIron–CarbonAlloys.................... 178 3.2.2 HardeningMechanismsofSteels.......................... 185 3.2.3 StainlessSteels............................................. 200 3.2.4 NonferrousMetalsandAlloys............................. 204 3.3 METALSURFACETREATMENTSFOR CORROSIONRESISTANCE..................................... 217 3.4 MAGNETISM ..................................................... 220 3.5 REVERSIBLEHYDROGENSTORAGE......................... 226 Chapter4. SEMICONDUCTORS........................................ 239 4.1 PROPERTIESANDTYPESOFSEMICONDUCTORS......... 239 4.2 SILICON-BASEDAPPLICATIONS.............................. 251 4.2.1 SiliconWaferProduction.................................. 251 4.2.2 IntegratedCircuits ......................................... 255 4.3 LIGHT-EMITTINGDIODES:THEREISLIFE OUTSIDEOFSILICON!.......................................... 321 4.4 THERMOELECTRIC(TE)MATERIALS........................ 330 Chapter5. POLYMERICMATERIALS................................ 349 5.1 POLYMERCLASSIFICATIONS ANDNOMENCLATURE......................................... 351 5.2 POLYMERIZATIONMECHANISMS............................ 356 5.2.1 AdditionPolymerization................................... 359 5.2.2 HeterogeneousCatalysis................................... 364 5.2.3 HomogeneousCatalysis.................................... 366 5.2.4 Step-GrowthPolymerization............................... 372 5.2.5 DendriticPolymers......................................... 376 5.2.6 Polymerizationvia“Click”Chemistry.................... 386 5.3 “SOFTMATERIALS”APPLICATIONS: STRUCTUREVS.PROPERTIES................................. 388 5.3.1 BiomaterialsApplications ................................. 393 5.3.2 ConductivePolymers ...................................... 417 5.3.3 MolecularMagnets......................................... 426 5.4 POLYMERADDITIVES.......................................... 437 5.4.1 FlameRetardants........................................... 440 Chapter6. NANOMATERIALS.......................................... 457 6.1 NANOTOXICITY................................................. 458 6.2 WHATIS“NANOTECHNOLOGY”?............................ 468 6.3 NANOSCALEBUILDINGBLOCKS ANDAPPLICATIONS............................................ 470 Contents vii 6.3.1 Zero-DimensionalNanomaterials.......................... 473 6.3.2 One-DimensionalNanostructures.......................... 529 6.3.3 Two-DimensionalNanostructures: The“GrapheneFrontier” .................................. 559 Chapter7. MATERIALSCHARACTERIZATION.................... 585 7.1 OPTICALMICROSCOPY........................................ 586 7.2 ELECTRONMICROSCOPY...................................... 588 7.2.1 ElectronSources........................................... 593 7.2.2 TransmissionElectronMicroscopy(TEM)................ 597 7.2.3 ScanningElectronMicroscopy(SEM).................... 617 7.3 SURFACECHARACTERIZATIONTECHNIQUES BASEDONPARTICLEBOMBARDMENT..................... 629 7.3.1 PhotoelectronSpectroscopy(PES) ........................ 629 7.3.2 X-rayAbsorptionFineStructure(XAFS)................. 631 7.3.3 Ion-BombardmentTechniques............................. 634 7.3.4 Atom-ProbeTomography(APT).......................... 643 7.4 SCANNINGPROBEMICROSCOPY(SPM)..................... 645 7.5 BULKCHARACTERIZATIONTECHNIQUES................. 651 APPENDIXA................................................................ 669 APPENDIXB................................................................ 681 APPENDIXC................................................................ 693 C.1 CHEMICALVAPORDEPOSITIONOF CARBONNANOTUBES......................................... 693 C.1.1 BackgroundInformation.................................. 693 C.1.2 Procedure.................................................. 695 C.2 SUPERCRITICALFLUIDFACILITATEDGROWTH OFCOPPERANDALUMINUMOXIDE NANOPARTICLES............................................... 697 C.2.1 Procedure.................................................. 698 C.3 SYNTHESISANDCHARACTERIZATIONOFLIQUID CRYSTALS ....................................................... 700 C.3.1 Procedure.................................................. 703 C.4 TEMPLATESYNTHESISANDMAGNETIC MANIPULATIONOFNICKELNANOWIRES ................. 705 C.4.1 Procedure.................................................. 705 C.5 INTRODUCTIONTOPHOTOLITHOGRAPHY................ 709 C.5.1 Procedure.................................................. 709 C.6 SYNTHESISOFGOLDNANOCLUSTERS..................... 712 C.6.1 Procedure.................................................. 712 C.7 SYNTHESISOFPOROUSSILICON............................ 713 C.7.1 Procedure.................................................. 714 viii Contents C.8 SOLID-LIQUID-SOLID(SLS)GROWTHOF SILICONNANOWIRES ........................................ 714 C.8.1 Procedure................................................ 716 C.9 SYNTHESISOFFERROFLUIDS.............................. 717 C.10 METALLURGY/PHASETRANSFORMATIONS ............. 717 C.11 HEATTREATMENTOFGLASSCERAMICS ............... 717 Index.......................................................................... 719 Preface Most colleges and universities now have courses and degree programs related to materials science. Materials Chemistry addresses inorganic, organic, and nano- basedmaterialsfromastructurevs.propertytreatment,providingasuitablebreadth anddepthcoverageoftherapidlyevolvingmaterialsfieldinaconciseformat.The material contained herein is most appropriate for junior/senior undergraduate students,aswellasfirst-yeargraduatestudentsinchemistry,physics,andengineer- ing fields. In addition, this textbook has also been shown to be extremely useful forresearchersinindustryasaninitialsource tolearnaboutmaterials/techniques. Acomprehensivelistofreferencesisprovidedforeachchapter,whichisessential formoredetailedtopicalresearch. It is a daunting task for a textbook to remain contemporary, especially when attempting to cover evolving fields such as advanced polymeric materials and nanotechnology, as well as applications related to energy storage, biomedicine, andmicroelectronics,amongothers.Accordingly,Ibeganworkingonupdatesfor MaterialsChemistrywhilethefirsteditionwasstillinproduction!The2ndedition continuestoofferinnovativecoverageandpracticalperspectivethroughout.After providinga historicalperspectivefor the field ofmaterials inthe firstchapter, the followingadditions/changeshavebeenadoptedinthisgreatlyexpandededition: Thesolid-statechemistrychapterusescolorillustrationsofcrystallineunitcells anddigitalphotosofmodelstoclarifytheirstructures.Thiseditionfeaturesmore archetypicalunitcellsandincludesfundamentalprinciplesofX-raycrystallog- raphyandbandtheory.Inaddition,theampleamorphous-solidssectionhasbeen expanded to include more details regarding zeolite syntheses, as well as cera- mics classifications and their biomaterial applications. Sections on sol–gel techniques and cementitious materials also remain, which are largely left out ofmostsolid-statetextbooks. Themetalschapterhasbeenre-organizedforclarity,andcontinuestotreatthe fullspectrumofpowdermetallurgicalmethods,complexphasebehaviorsofthe ix
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