Materials Forming, Machining and Tribology Kaushik Kumar Hridayjit Kalita Divya Zindani J. Paulo Davim Materials and Manufacturing Processes Materials Forming, Machining and Tribology Series Editor J. Paulo Davim, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal This series fosters information exchange and discussion on all aspects of materials forming, machining and tribology. This series focuses on materials forming and machining processes, namely, metal casting, rolling, forging, extrusion, drawing, sheet metal forming, microforming, hydroforming, thermoforming, incremental forming, joining, powder metallurgy and ceramics processing, shaping processes for plastics/composites, traditional machining (turning, drilling, miling, broaching, etc.), non-traditional machining (EDM, ECM, USM, LAM, etc.), grinding and others abrasive processes, hard part machining, high speed machining, high efficiency machining, micro and nanomachining, among others. The formability and machinability of all materials will be considered, including metals, polymers, ceramics,composites,biomaterials,nanomaterials,specialmaterials,etc.Theseries covers the full range of tribological aspects such as surface integrity, friction and wear, lubrication and multiscale tribology including biomedical systems and manufacturing processes. It also covers modelling and optimization techniques applied in materials forming, machining and tribology. Contributions to this book series are welcome on all subjects of “green” materials forming, machining and tribology. To submit a proposal or request further information, please contact Dr. MayraCastro,PublishingEditorAppliedSciences,[email protected] or Professor J. Paulo Davim, Book Series Editor, via [email protected] More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11181 Kaushik Kumar Hridayjit Kalita (cid:129) (cid:129) Divya Zindani J. Paulo Davim (cid:129) Materials and Manufacturing Processes 123 Dr. KaushikKumar Dr. Hridayjit Kalita Department ofMechanical Engineering Department ofMechanical Engineering Birla Institute of Technology Birla Institute of Technology Ranchi, Jharkhand, India Ranchi, Jharkhand, India DivyaZindani Prof. J.PauloDavim Department ofMechanical Engineering Department ofMechanical Engineering National Institute ofTechnology Silchar University of Aveiro Silchar, Assam, India Aveiro, Portugal ISSN 2195-0911 ISSN 2195-092X (electronic) Materials Forming,Machining andTribology ISBN978-3-030-21065-6 ISBN978-3-030-21066-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21066-3 ©SpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2019 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpart of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission orinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. 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ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Preface The authors are pleased to present the book Materials and Manufacturing Processes under Book Series Materials Forming, Machining and Tribology. This book would serve as an initial part of the book Advanced Machining and Manufacturing Processes (ISBN 978-3-319-76074-2), under the same series and also published by Springer International Publishing AG. These books together would provide readers a complete picture of manufacturing technology starting from materials to virtual manufacturing covering the basic and advanced aspects. This book, the preamble of the two, has been written with a view to project the basic understanding of the materials and traditional processes involved in a man- ufacturing industry. The properties and application of different engineering mate- rialshavebeendiscussedandfailuretestsperformedontheworkmaterialsofboth destructible and non-destructible in nature have been explained in detail. The processes and the design associated with manufacturing processes like casting, forming, welding, machining, etc. have been covered in a simple and lucid lan- guage. The main emphasis, hence, is directed towards industrial engineering out- look. The target audience is academics students, researchers and industry practitioners,engineers, research scientists/academicians working inthis vast field. This book is divided into three parts ranging from engineering materials to various basic manufacturing and machining processes that may be employed by manufacturingindustriesforbetterunderstandingoftheintricaciesofthesystemto improvetheiroutputtowardsabettersocio-economicdevelopment.Asthesections are independent of each other, in each part, chapters are independently numbered. PartIdealswithEngineeringMaterials.Thepartcontainstwochapters.Chapter1 deals with Introduction to Materials. There has been a major development in the material research and applications in industrial and commercial components or products.Withtheincreaseindemandofcustomersforvariouscustomizedproducts thereisneedtobedurable,functionallyreliableandlowcostatthesametime.These requirementsmotivatedesignersandmanufacturerstotacklethechallengingtaskof optimizingthecontrolfactorsthatdeterminethequalityofthefinalproduct.Inthis chapter,theproperties,compositions and characteristics ofdifferent materials have beendescribedindetailundertheheadingofallengineeringmaterialsusedpresently v vi Preface in industries and structural works. The production procedure of these materials, processesforheattreatmentsforalteringpropertiesofthematerialandapplications ofthesematerialsaredescribedindetailinthischapter. Chapter 2 explores Mechanical Behaviour of Materials. Material is the most important aspect of research in all engineering domains which gives an under- standing of the real physical structure of various products and objects that are availableallaround.Thebehaviourofthesevariousproductsintheirservicelifeis very important to analyse as it might not be desirable to have a product fail at the most unexpected time. In order to quantify these behaviors of material, various properties, as described, in the earlier chapter are determined by running material tests.Theprocedureforcarryingoutthesetests,feasibilityofthesetesttobeableto runfordifferentmaterialsandthebehaviouroftheparttobetestedaresomeofthe aspectswhichhavebeenexplainedindetailinthischapter.Materialtestshavebeen detailed in two major branches namely, destructible and non destructible tests. Some other fracture surface behaviour in ductile and brittle material upon appli- cation of loads higher than their fracture strength and responses for plastic defor- mation in the form of heat generation and build up of residual stresses are also described in this chapter. This ends Part I. PartIIcontainingthreechapterscoversConventionalManufacturing.Chapter3 of this section elaborates Casting, the most widely used manufacturing process. Herethebasicunderstandingofthecastingprocess,operationsanddesigninvolved in the sand mould casting process, various metal mould casting processes and few other commonly used casting processes are described in detail. Chapter 4 of this section deals with Forming Process. Right from the advent of industrialrevolution,thishasbeenthemostimportantandversatileoperationinany manufacturingandmetalworkingindustries.Metalsareneededtobedeformedfor avarietyoffunctionalrequirementsintheproductorforenhancingthestrengthand hardness.Thisdeformationproducesacomplexflowofmaterialwhichbasicallyis dependentontheamountofforceapplication,ductilityofthematerial,temperature of the material and modulus of elasticity. Deformation can be in the form of bulk deformation under compressive loads or bending, stretching, shrinking or shearing inthe sheet metal operations based on which different tools(rollers in rolling, dies and punch) have to be designed accordingly for operations such as blanking, extrusion, wire drawing, rolling, etc. The temperature of the metal has to be maintained such that sufficient plasticity is induced and can be operated with the given capacity of the machine. Few positive aspects offorming processes include insignificant wastage of material, high output material strength, dimensional accuracy and simpler mechanism. Chapter 5, the last chapter of the section, discusses another very important manufacturingprocessi.e.Welding.Itisaprocesswhichenableslargeandcomplex shaped products to be divided into small and simple parts to be manufactured independently and later can be rigidly joined by fusion of the material at the interface between two metal pieces, stiff enough to operate as a single piece. Welding process is mainly characterized by the melting of the interface material between the two metals, fusion or mixing of the material and then solidifying to Preface vii producearigidandhighstrengthjoint.Insomecasesorapplications,evenanaxial or shear pressure may accompany the fusion phenomenon to trigger a plastic deformation of material at the interface for tight bonding. In this chapter, the fundamental concept behind the various welding processes and how are these classifiedbasedondifferentheatsourceutilizationandtechniquesofutilizationare explained in detail. The last section of the book Part III focuses on Conventional Machining and containsasinglechapter,Chap.6.Allmetalparts,afterbeingcastedorformedhas to be shaped into its final dimensions so that it could meet the required function- ality, durability and aesthetic characteristics of a product. This chapter elaborates the shaping process which requires metal removal involving various complex phenomenon and factors and a set of mechanisms that can be controlled by con- sidering various tool geometry, optimized cutting conditions and better tool–work material combination. In this chapter processes like turning, milling, boring, dril- ling, reaming, planning and shaping, sawing, filing, broaching, etc have been dis- cussed in detail. Augmentation of this introductory book along with Advanced Machining and Manufacturing Processes (ISBN 978-3-319-76074-2), published by Springer International Publishing AG would provide, all readers, complete domain of manufacturing world. First and foremost we would like to thank God for providing the power of thinking and means of expression. We would like to thank all of our colleagues, friends in different part of the world for sharing of ideas in shaping our thoughts. WeoweahugethankstoallofourTechnical reviewers,EditorialAdvisoryBoard Members,BookDevelopmentEditorandtheteamofPublisherSpringerNaturefor their availability to work on this huge project. All of their efforts helped to make this book complete and we could not have done it without them. Throughout the process of writing this book, many individuals, from different walks of life, have taken time out to help us out. Last, but definitely not least, we wouldliketothankthemall,ourwellwishers,forprovidingusencouragement.We would have probably given up without their support. Ranchi, India Kaushik Kumar Ranchi, India Hridayjit Kalita Assam, India Divya Zindani Aveiro, Portugal J. Paulo Davim Contents Part I Engineering Materials 1 Introduction to Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.1 Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.3 Ferrous Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3.1 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.3.3 Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.3.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.4 Non Ferrous Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.4.1 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.4.2 Properties and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.4.3 Heat Treatment Processes in Non Ferrous Metals. . . . . . . 13 1.5 Ceramic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.6 Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.7 Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.8 Graphite and Diamond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 1.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2 Mechanical Behaviour of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.1 Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.3 Destructible Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.3.1 Tensile Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.3.2 Compression Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.3.3 Hardness Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.3.4 Fatigue Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 ix x Contents 2.3.5 Creep Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.3.6 Impact Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.4 Non Destructible Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.4.1 Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.4.2 Radiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.4.3 Ultrasonic Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.4.4 Magnetic Particle Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.4.5 Eddy Current Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.4.6 Acoustic Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.4.7 Liquid Penetration Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.5 Failure Characteristics in Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.5.1 Fracture Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.5.2 Plastic Deformation Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Part II Conventional Manufacturing 3 Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.1 Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.3 Fundamentals of Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.3.1 Solidification of Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.3.2 Fluidity of Molten Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.3.3 Pouring Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.4 Sand Mould Casting Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.4.1 Pattern Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.4.2 Mould Making. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.4.3 Core Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.4.4 Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.5 Metal Mould Casting Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.5.1 Slush Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.5.2 Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.5.3 Centrifugal Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.5.4 Continuous Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.6 Investment Mould Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.7 Plaster Mould Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.8 Ceramic Mould Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 4 Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53