Materials and applications. Part 1

557 Pages·1996·48.918 MB·English

by  Cynthia L Jenney, Annette O'Brien, American Welding Society

WELDING
HANDBOOK
Eighth Edition
Volume 3
MATERIALS AND APPLICATIONS
PART 1
Reproduced by
@
World Engineering Xchange
With the Permission of
AWS Under Royalty Agreement
William R. Oates
Editor
AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY
550 N.W. LEJEUNE ROAD
MIAMI, FL 33126
Library of Congress Number: 96-083169
International Standard Book Number: 0-87171-470-1
American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126
0 1996 by American Welding Society.
All rights reserved.
THE WELDING HANDBOOK is a collective effort of many volunteer technical specialists to
provide information to assist with the design and application of welding and allied processes.
Reasonable care is taken in the compilation and publication of the Welding Handbook to
insure authenticity of the contents. However, no representation is made as to the accuracy or
reliability of this information, and an independent, substantiating investigation should be
undertaken by any user.
The information contained in the Welding Handbook shall not be construed as a grant of any
right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction in connection with any method, process,
apparatus, product, composition, or system, which is covered by patent, copyright, or trademark.
Also, it shall not be construed as a defense against any liability for such infringement. Whether or
not use of any information in the Handbook would result in an infringement of any patent,
copyright, or trademark is a determination to be made by the user.
Printed in the United States of America
This is Volume Three of the Eighth Edition of the Welding Handbook. The title of this third
volume, Materials and Applications-Part 1, suggests correctly that the Eighth Edition will have a
fourth volume, Materials and Applications-Part 2. Volume Three begins the process of updating
and substantially expanding the material previously presented in Volume Four of the Seventh Edition
and Volume 5 of the Sixth Edition.
Originally, the Welding Handbook Committee had planned to publish the Materials and
Applications title as a single publication. However, as the Committee began to compile the text, it
became apparent that the material was too voluminous to be contained in a single text. Therefore, it
was necessary to separate Materials and Applications into two volumes. Unfortunately, this decision
was made after the first two volumes of the Eighth Edition had been published, and so the front
matter in Volumes One and Two indicate Volume Three to be the Materials and Applications
material in its entirety.
Volume Three, Materials and Applications-Part 1, covers many nonferrous metals, plastics,
composites, ceramics, and new specialized topics: maintenance and repair welding and underwater
welding and cutting. Volume Four, Materials and Applications-Part 2, will contain information
mostly on ferrous materials, but it also will cover titanium, clad and dissimilar metals, tube-to-
tubesheet welding, and the reactive, refractory, and precious metals and alloys. Volume Four,
Materials and Applications-Part 2, is scheduled to be published two years following the publication
of Volume Three, Materials and Applications-Part 1.
This volume represents a considerable expansion of the information on these topics contained in
previous editions. As with the first two volumes of this Eighth Edition, practical application data and
color illustrations have been added.
This volume, like the others, was a voluntary effort by the Welding Handbook Committee and the
Chapter Committees. The Chapter Committee Members and the Welding Handbook Committee
Member responsible for each chapter are recognized on the title page of that chapter. Other
individuals also contributed in a variety of ways, particularly in chapter reviews. All participants
contributed generously of their time and talent, and the American Welding Society expresses its
sincere appreciation to them and to their employers for supporting this work.
The Welding Handbook Committee expresses its appreciation to the AWS staff members who
assisted with this volume, especially the Technical Division staff engineers for technical assistance,
Deborah Givens for editorial assistance, and Doreen Kubish for editorial and production assistance
with text, graphics, and layout.
The Welding Handbook Committee welcomes your comments on the Welding Handbook as well
as your potential interest in contributing to future volumes. Communications may be addressed to
the Editor, Welding Handbook, American Welding Society, 550 N. W. LeJeune Road, Miami,
Florida, 33126.
B. R. Somers, Chairman W. R. Oates, Editor
Welding Handbook Committee Welding Handbook
1992-1996
xi
WELDING HANDBOOK COMMlllEE. ................................................................................ ix
PREFACE .......................................................................................................... xi
-~
~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~~~ ~~ ~~~ ~ ~~~
CHAPTER 1. ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS ............................... 1
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 2
SAFE PRACTICES ..................................................................................... 28
ARC WELDING ....................................................................................... 30
STUD WELDING. ..................................................................................... 52
ELECTRON BEAM WELDING ........................................................................... 64
LASER BEAM WELDING ............................................................................... 71
RESISTANCE WELDING ............................................................................... 72
SOLID-STATE WELDING ............................................................................... 80
OXYFUEL GAS WELDING .............................................................................. 81
WELDING ALUMINUM CASTINGS ...................................................................... 83
BRAZING ............................................................................................ 85
SOLDERING .......................................................................................... 90
ADHESIVE BONDING .................................................................................. 95
JOINING TO OTHER METALS ........................................................................... 97
ARC CUTTING ........................................................................................ 98
PROPERTIES AND PERFORMANCE OF WELDMENTS ...................................................... 100
APPLICATIONS ....................................................................................... 111
SUPPLEMENTARY READING LIST ....................................................................... 117
CHAPTER 2. MAGNESIUM AND MAGNESIUM ALLOYS ........................... 121
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 122
ALLOYS .............................................................................................. 123
SURFACE PREPARATION .............................................................................. 129
ARC WELDING ....................................................................................... 130
RESISTANCE WELDING ............................................................................... 145
OXYFUEL GAS WELDING .............................................................................. 152
OTHER WELDING PROCESSES ......................................................................... 152
BRAZING ............................................................................................ 154
SOLDERING .......................................................................................... 155
PLASMA ARC CUTTING ............................................................................... 156
SAFE PRACTICES ..................................................................................... 157
A PP LI C AT I0 N S ....................................................................................... 158
SUPPLEMENTARY READING LIST ....................................................................... 162
V
CONTENTS
~ ~~~~
CHAPTER 3. COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS .......................................... 163
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 164
ALLOYS ............................................................................................. 164
JOINING PROCESS SELECTION ........................................................................ 172
WELDING ........................................................................................... 175
BRAZING ............................................................................................ 197
SOLDERING ......................................................................................... 204
APPLl CAT1 0N S ....................................................................................... 208
SUPPLEMENTARY READING LIST ...................................................................... 215
~
CHAPTER 4. NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS
........................................... 217
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 218
METAL CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................................ 219
ALLOY GROUPS ...................................................................................... 224
SURFACE PREPARATION .............................................................................. 229
ARC WELDING ....................................................................................... 230
DISSIMILAR METALS ................................................................................. 250
OXYACETYLENE WELDING ............................................................................ 264
RESISTANCE WELDING ............................................................................... 265
ELECTRON BEAM WELDING ........................................................................... 271
LASER BEAM WELDING ............................................................................... 272
FABRICATION FOR HIGH-TEMPERATURE SERVICE ....................................................... 272
BRAZING ............................................................................................ 276
SOLDERING ......................................................................................... 279
THERMAL CUTTING .................................................................................. 280
SAFE PRACTICES ..................................................................................... 281
APPLICATIONS ....................................................................................... 282
SUPPLEMENTARY READING LIST ...................................................................... 287
CHAPTER 5. LEAD AND ZINC ............................................................... 289
WELDING AND SOLDERING OF LEAD ................................................................... 290
WELDING AND SOLDERING OFZINC ................................................................... 304
SAFETY AND HEALTH ................................................................................. 311
APPLICATIONS ....................................................................................... 312
SUPPLEMENTARY READING LIST ...................................................................... 316
~~
CHAPTER 6. PLASTICS ........................................................................ 319
INTRO DUCT1O N ...................................................................................... 320
WELDING METHODS FOR THERMOPLASTICS ........................................................... 321
WELD QUALITY ASSESSMENT ......................................................................... 344
vi
CONTENTS
HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES .......................................................................... 346
APPLICATIONS ....................................................................................... 347
SUPPLEMENTARY READING LIST ....................................................................... 350
CHAPTER 7. COMPOSITES
................................................................... 353
WELDING OF POLYMERIC COMPOSITES. ................................................................ 354
APPLICATIONS OF POLYMERIC COMPOSITES. ........................................................... 364
WELDING OF METAL-MATRIX COMPOSITES ............................................................. 365
APPLICATIONS OF METAL-MATRIX COMPOSITES ........................................................ 385
HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES .......................................................................... 386
SUPPLEMENTARY READING LIST ....................................................................... 387
~~
CHAPTER 8. CERAMICS
....................................................................... 389
IN TRO DUCT1O N ...................................................................................... 390
CERAMIC MATERIALS ................................................................................. 391
JOINING PROCESSES ................................................................................. 394
SAFETY AND HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................ 409
INDUSTRY NEEDS .................................................................................... 410
APPLICATIONS ....................................................................................... 411
SUPPLEMENTARY READING LIST ....................................................................... 415
CHAPTER 9. MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR WELDING ............................. 417
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 418
A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR WELDING .................................... 419
APPLICATIONS ....................................................................................... 430
SUPPLEMENTARY READING LIST ....................................................................... 444
CHAPTER 10. UNDERWATER WELDING AND CUTTING ........................... 445
IN TRO DU CTI0 N ...................................................................................... 446
SAFETY IN UNDERWATER WELDING AND CUTTING., .................................................... 449
UNDERWATER WELDING .............................................................................. 453
UNDERWATER WELD I NG SPEC IF1 CAT1 ONS .............................................................. 485
UNDERWATER INSPECTION ........................................................................... 487
UNDERWATER THERMAL CUTTING ..................................................................... 489
APPLICATIONS ....................................................................................... 495
SUPPLEMENTARY READING LIST. ...................................................................... 499
WELDING HANDBOOK INDEX OF MAJOR SUBJECTS
............................. 501
INDEX
................................................................................................ 513
vi i
PREPARED BY A
COMMITEE CONSISTING
OF
W. H. Kielhorn, Chairman
LeTourneau University
ALUMINUM F. Armao
Aluminum Company of
America
H. A. Chambers
AND
TRW Nelson Stud Welding
Division
P. Dent
ALUMINUM Grumman Aircraft Systems
P. B. Dickerson
Consultant
ALLOYS R. Donnelly
Vertex Communications
S. E. Gingrich
Grove Worldwide
D. R. Hill
Alumatech
L. S. Krarner
Martin Marietta
Introduction 2 Welding Aluminum Castings 83
J. Murphy
Consultant
Safe Practices 28 Brazing 85
J. R. Pickens
Martin Marietta
Arc Welding 30 Soldering 90
J. Schuster
Omni Technologies
Stud Welding 52 Adhesive Bonding 95
Corporation
Electron Beam Welding 64 Joining to Other Metals 97 J. Stokes
Consultant
Laser Beam Welding 71 Arc Cutting 98 A. Szabo
Martin Marietta
Resistance Properties and Performance WELDING HANDBOOK
Welding 72 of Weldments 100 COMMillEE MEMBER
P. I. Temple
Detroit Edison Company
Solid-stateW elding 80 Applications 111
~ ~~~
Oxyfuel Gas Welding 81 Supplementary Reading tist 117
2 ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS
ALUMINUM
AND
ALUMINUM
ALLOYS
INTRODUCTION
ALUMINUM IS JOINED with most of the known also be hammered, forged, or extruded into a wide vari-
joining processes. It is readily joined by welding, braz- ety of shapes. Machining ease and speed are important
ing, soldering, adhesive bonding, or mechanical fasten- factors in using aluminum parts. Aluminum can be
ing. In many instances, aluminum is joined by the given a wide variety of mechanical, electromechanical,
conventional equipment and techniques used with chemical, or paint finishes.
other metals. Occasionally, specialized equipment or Pure aluminum melts at 1220 OF (660 "C). Alumi-
techniques, or both, are required. The alloy, joint con- num alloys have an approximate melting range of from
figuration, strength requirement, appearance, and cost 900 to 1220 (482 to 660 "C), depending upon the
OF
are factors that dictate the choice of joining process. alloy. There is no color change in aluminum when
Each process for joining aluminum has certain advan- heated to the welding or brazing temperature range.
tages and limitations. This necessitates a welder assuming a position where
the melting of the base and filler metals under the arc or
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS flame can be witnessed.
High thermal conductivity (as compared to steel)
OF ALUMINUM
necessitates a high rate of heat input for fusion welding.
Thick sections may require preheating. When resistance
ALUMINUM IS LIGHT in weight, yet some of its spot welding, aluminum's high thermal and electrical
alloys have strengths exceeding mild steel. It retains conductivities require higher current, shorter weld time,
good ductility at subzero temperatures, has high resis- and more precise control of the welding variables than
tance to corrosion, and is not toxic. Aluminum has when welding steel.
good electrical and thermal conductivity as well as high Since aluminum is nonmagnetic and no arc blow is
reflectivity to both heat and light. It is nonsparking and experienced when welding with direct current, alumi-
nonmagnetic. num is being used for backing and fixtures in welding.
Aluminum is easy to fabricate. It can be cast, rolled, Aluminum and its alloys rapidly develop a tenacious,
stamped, drawn, spun, stretched, or roll-formed. It can refractory oxide film when exposed to air. This natural
ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS 3
oxide film can be removed using either a protective
~
atmosphere or fluxes suitable during arc welding, braz- Table 1.1
ing, or soldering. Exposure to the elevated temperatures Designations for Wrought Alloy Groups
of thermal treatments or exposure to moist environ-
ments cause the aluminum oxide film to markedly A system of four-digit numerical designationsi s used to idemw rought
thicken, necessitating removal prior to joining. aluminum alloys. The first digit indicates the alloy group as follows:
Heat-treated aluminum can have an exceptionally
Aluminum, !39.0%and greater 1X XX"
thick aluminum oxide film that causes poor wetting and
Maior Allovinq Element
flow of filler metal.' Aluminum oxide melts at about
2xxx
Copper
3700 (2037 "C) and should be removed by chemical
OF Manganese 3xxx
or mechanical means prior to welding. The composition 4xxx
Silicon
and melting range of an aluminum alloy are the pri- Magnesium SXXX
mary considerations for selection of the joining process. Magnesium and Silicon 6XXX
Anodic electrolytic treatments applied to aluminum Zinc 7xxx
result in forming thick, dense oxide coatings that must Other elements 8XXX
sxxx
Unused series
be removed prior to fusion welding, brazing or solder-
ing2 The anodic coatings can resist 400 volts or more,
so welding arcs cannot be initiated. This oxide must be * For 1XXX series,the lasttwo digits indicate the minimum aluminum purity
removed not only from the joint but also at the location (e.g., 1060 is 99.60% A1 minimum). The second digit in all groups indicates
consecutive modificationso f an original alloy, such as 5154,5254,5454,a nd
of the work lead when arc welding.
5654 alloys.
The properties and performances of aluminum parts
are influenced by microstructural changes that occur
during any elevated-temperature joining process. The To increase corrosion resistance, some alloys are clad
with high-purity aluminum or a special aluminum alloy.
strength, fatigue life, ductility, and formability originally
in the parts are changed depending upon the amount of The cladding, usually from 2 1/2 to 15 percent of the
total thickness on one or both sides, not only protects
annealing, overaging, and formation of cast structure
occurring during the joining process. The results of the composite due to its inherent corrosion resistance,
these changes are presented in subsequent sections of but generally exerts a galvanic effect which further pro-
this chapter devoted to specific joining processes. tects the core material. Special composites also are
produced for brazing, soldering, and finishing purposes.
ALUMINUM FORMS
PURE ALUMINUM IS readily alloyed with many other
metals to produce a wide range of physical and
mechanical properties. Table 1.1 lists the major alloy-
Nonheat-Treatable Aluminum Alloys
ing elements in the wrought aluminum alloys. The
means by which the alloying elements strengthen
aluminum are used as the basis to classify aluminum THE INITIAL STRENGTH of the nonheat-treatable
alloys into two categories: nonheat-treatable and heat- aluminum alloys depends primarily upon the harden-
treatable. Wrought aluminum alloys have similar ing effect of alloying elements such as silicon, iron,
joining characteristics regardless of product form. Cast manganese, and magnesium. These elements affect
aluminum alloys are produced in the form of sand, per- increases in strength either as dispersed phases or by
manent mold, and die castings. Substantially, the same solid-solution strengthening. The nonheat-treatable
welding, brazing, and soldering practices are used on alloys are mainly found in the lXXX, 3XXX, 4XXX,
both cast and wrought metal. SXXX alloy series (Table 1.2) depending upon their
Conventional die castings are not recommended major alloying elements.
where welded or brazed construction is required. They
Iron and silicon are the major impurities in commer-
can be adhesively bonded and, to a limited degree, sol-
cially pure aluminum, but they add strength to these
dered. New developments in vacuum die casting have
lXXX series alloys. Silicon is the major element in
improved the quality of castings to the point where
many welding and brazing filler alloys. Magnesium is
some may be satisfactorily welded.
the most effective solution-strengthening element in the
nonheat-treatable alloys. Aluminum-magnesium alloys
1. The term film is used to describe the naturally occurring oxide of the SXXX series have relatively high strength in the
film on aluminum due to the reaction with oxygen in air. annealed condition. The strength of all of the nonheat-
2. The term coating is used to describe a deliberate chemical buildup
treatable alloys may be improved by strain hardening
of aluminum oxide on aluminum surfaces that results in a very thick,
dense oxide layer on the aluminum surface. (sometimes called work hardening or cold working.)
4 ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Table 1.2
Compositions and Applications of Nonheat-Treatable Wrought Alloys
Aluminum Association Nominal Composition (Yo Alloying Element)
cu
Designation Mn Mg Cr Typical Applications
1060 99.60% minimum aluminum Chemical process equipment tanks, piping.
1100 99.00% minimum aluminum Architectural and decorative applications, furniture, deep drawn parts, spun
hollow ware.
1350 99.50% minimum aluminum Electrical conductorwire, bus and cable.
-
3003 1.2 - General purpose applicationswhere slightly higher strength than 11W is
required. Process and food handling equipment chemical and petroleum
drums and tanks.
3004 1.2 1 .o - Sheet metal requiring higher strengtht han m.
- -
5005 0.8 Electrical conductor and architectural applications.
- -
5050 1.4 Similarto 3003 and 5005 butstronger. Has excellent finishing qualities.
- -
5052,5652 2.5 Sheet metal applications requiring higher strength than 5050. Formable and
good corrosion resistance. Storage tanks, boats, appliances. Alloy 5652 has
closer control of impuritiesf or H202service.
5083 0.7 4.4 0.15 Marine components, tanks, unfired pressure vessels, clyogenics struc-
tures, railroad cars, drilling rigs.
5086 0.45 4.0 0.1 5 Marine components, tanks, tankers,truck frames.
51 54,5254 - 3.5 0.25 Unfired pressure vessels, tankers. Alloy 5254 has closer control of impuri-
ties for H202s ervice.
5454 0.8 2.7 0.12 Structural applications and tanks for sustained high-temperatures ervice.
5456 0.8 5.1 0.12 Structures, tanks, unfired pressure vessels, marine components.
To remove the effects of strain hardening and Heat-Treatable Aluminum Alloys
improve ductility, the nonheat-treatable alloys may be
annealed by heating to a uniform temperature in the
range of 650 to 775 O F (343 to 410 "C). The exact THE INITIAL STRENGTH of aluminum alloys in this
annealing schedule will depend upon the alloy and its group depends upon the alloy composition, just as in
temper. Although the rate of cooling from the anneal- the nonheat-treatable alloys. Since elements such as
ing temperature is unimportant, fixturing may be copper, magnesium, zinc, and silicon, either singularly
required to prevent distortion or warping. Basic temper or in various combinations, show a marked increase in
designations applicable to the nonheat-treatable alloys solid solubility in aluminum with increasing tempera-
are indicated in Table 1.3. ture, it is possible to subject them to thermal treatments
that will impart pronounced strengthening. Heat-treat-
When fusion welded, the nonheat-treatable alloys able aluminum alloys develop their properties by solu-
lose the effects of strain hardening in a narrow heat- tion heat treating and quenching, followed by either
affected zone (HAZ) adjacent to the weld; the strength natural or artificial aging. Cold working may add addi-
in the HAZ will approach that of the annealed condi- tional strength. The heat-treatable alloys may also be
tion. Table 1.4 contains information on the relative annealed to attain maximum ductility. This treatment
weldability and properties of common nonheat- involves holding at an elevated temperature and con-
treatable alloys in various tempers. trolled cooling to achieve maximum softening. Basic