Marine Geochemistry

463 Pages·2000·17.577 MB·English

by  Dieter K. Fütterer (auth.), Professor Dr. Horst D. Schulz, Dr. Matthias Zabel (eds.)

Marine Geochemistry
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
Horst D. Schulz . Matthias Zabel (Eds.)
Marine Geochemistry
With 241 Figures and 23 Tables
Springer
EDITORS
Professor Dr. Horst D. Schulz
University of Bremen
Department of Geosciences
28359 Bremen
Germany
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Matthias Zabel
University of Bremen
Department of Geosciences
28359 Bremen
Germany
E-mail: [email protected]
ISBN 978-3-662-04244-1 ISBN 978-3-662-04242-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-04242-7
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Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme
Schulz, Horst D.: Marine geochemistry: with 23 tables/Horst D. Schulz; Matthias Zabel. - Berlin; Heidel
berg; New York; Barcelona; Hong Kong; London; Milan; Paris; Singapore; Tokyo: Springer, 2000
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Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 2000.
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PREFACE
Today, most branches of science have been extensively described. As to their objectives and
interrelationships they are also weB distinguished from the adjoining science disciplines. In this regard,
marine geochemistry makes an exception, as does geochemistry in general, for - depending on the
scientist's educational and professional career -this particular field of research can be understood more
or less in terms of geology, chemistry, biology, even mineralogy or oceanography. Despite some occasional
objection, we conceive our interdisciplinary approach to marine geochemistry rather as an opportunity
-even if our own origins most certainly lie in the geosciences. R. Chester (1990) emphasized the chemistry
of the water column and the relations to continental inputs in his book on "Marine Geochemistry". For
us, however, the investigation of the marine surface sediments and the (bio )geochemical processes
taking place therein will be of major concern. We therefore see our book as a continuation of what
R.A. Berner (1980) initiated with his classical work "Early Diagenesis" , with which he had a determining
influence in pointing the way ahead. The concept and the contents we present here is addressed to
graduated students of earth science who specialize in marine geochemistry.
Before the background of a continually expanding field of research, it appears impossible for a
textbook on marine geochemistry to cope with the task of achieving completeness. Some parts of
marine geochemistry have been described in more detail elsewhere and with an emphasis placed on a
different context. These parts were permitted to be treated in brief. The classical subjects of "Marine
Geology" are therefore to be found in J.P. Kennet (1982), or with a different perspective in
R.N. Andersen (1986). No book on "Aquatic Chemistry" can hardly be better than the one written by
W. Stumm and J.J. Morgan (1996). There is furthermore the textbook written by K. Grasshoff,
K. Kremling, and M. Ehrhardt (1999) which is concerned with the analytical measurements in seawater.
"Tracers in the Sea" by W.S. Broecker and T.-H. Peng (1982) still remains an essential work of standard,
albeit a new edition is dearly awaited for. The important field of "Isotope Geochemistry" is exquisitely
represented by the books written by G. Faure (1986), Clark and Fritz (1997) and J. Hoefs (1997),
as much as "Organic Geochemistry" is represented by the book published by M.H. Engel and
S.A. Macko (1993). "Diagenetic Models and Their Implementation" are described from the perspecti ve
of a mathematician by B.P. Boudreau (1997), owing to which we were able to confine ourselves to the
geochemist's point of view.
Marine geochemistry is generally integrated into the broad conceptual framework of oceanography
which encompasses the study of the oceanic currents, their interactions with the atmosphere, weather
and climate; it leads from the substances dissolved in water, to the marine flora and fauna, the processes
of plate tectonics, the sediments at the bottom of the oceans, and thus to marine geology. Our notion
of marine geochemistry is that it is apart of marine geology, wherefore we began our book with a
chapter on the solid phase of marine sediments concerning its composition, development and
distribution. The first chapter written by Dieter K. Fütterer is therefore abrief summarizing introduction
into marine geology wh ich describes all biochemically relevant aspects related to the subject. Monika
Breitzke and Ulrich Bleil are concerned in the following chapter with the physical properties of
sediments and sedimentary magnetism in a marine-geophysical context, which we deern an important
contribution to our understanding of geochemical processes in the sediment.
In the third chapter, Horst D. Schulz demonstrates that the method to quantify biogeochemical
processes and material fluxes in recent sediments affords the analysis of the pore-water fraction.
Jürgen Rullkötter subsequently gives an overview of organic material contained in sediments which
ultimately provides the energy for powering almost all (bio )geochemical reactions in that compartment.
The fifth chapter by Bo. B. Jprgensen surveys the world of microorganisms and their actions in
marine sediments. The chapters six, seven, and eight are placed in the order of the oxidative agents
v
that are involved in the oxidation of sedimentary organic matter: oxygen and nitrate (Christian Hensen
and Matthias Zabel), iron (Ralf R. Haese) and sulfate (Sabine Kasten and Bo. B. Jy;rgensen). They
close the circle of primary reactions that occur in the early diagenesis of oceanic sediments.
In the ninth chapter, marine carbonates are dealt with as a part of the global carbon cycle which
essentiaIly contributes to diagenetic processes (RalfR. Schneider, Horst D. Schulz and Christian Hensen).
Ratios of stable isotopes are repeatedly used as proxy-parametes for reconstructing the paleoclimate
and paleoceanography. Hence, in the succeeding chapter, Torsten Bickert discusses the stable isotopes
in the marine sediment as weIl as the processes which bear influence on them. Geoffrey P. Glasby has
dedicated a considerable part of his scientific work to marine manganese. He visited Bremen several
times as a guest scientist and therefore it goes without saying that we seized the opportunity to appoint
hirn to be the author of the chapter dealing with nodules and crusts of manganese. Looking at the
benthic fluxes of dissolved and solid/particulate substance across the sediment/water interface, the
processes of early diagenesis contribute primarily to the material budgets in the world's oceans and thus
to the global material cycles. In chapter 12, Matthias Zabel, Christi an Hensen and Michael Schlüter
have ventured to make initial methodological observations on global interactions and balances, a subject
which is presently in astate of flux. A summarizing view on hot vents and cold seeps is represented by
a chapter which is complete in itself . We are indebted to Peter M. Herzig and Mark D. Hannington for
having taken responsibility in writing this chapter, without which a textbook on marine geochemistry
would always have remained incomplete. In the final chapter, conceptual models and their realization
into computer models are discussed. Here, Horst D. Schulz is more concerned with the biogeochemical
processes, their proper comprehension, and with aspects of practical application rather than the
demonstration of ultimate mathematical elegance.
This book could only be written because many contributors have given their support. First of aIl,
we have to mention the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft in this regard, which has generously funded
our research work in the Southern Atlantic for over ten years. This special research project
[Sonderforschungsbereich, SFB 261] entitled "The South Atlantic in the Late Quaternary:
Reconstruction ofM aterial Budget and Current Systems", covered the joint activities of the Department
of Geosciences at the University Bremen, the Alfred-Wegener-Institute for Polar and Marine Research
in Bremerhaven, and the Max-Planck-Institute for Marine Microbiology in Bremen.
The marine-geochemical studies are closely related to the scientific publications submitted by our
colleagues from the various fields of biology, marine chemistry, geology, geophysics, mineralogy
and paleontology. We would like to thank all our colleagues for the long talks and discussions we had
together and for the patient understanding they have showed us as geochemists who were not at aIl
times familiar with the numerous particulars of the neighboring sciences.
We were fortunate to launch numerous expeditions within the course of our studies in which
several research vessels were employed, especially the RV METEOR. We owe gratitude to the
captains and crews of these ships for their commitment and services even at times when duty at sea
was rough. All chapters of this book were subject to an international process of review. Although all
colleagues involved have been mentioned elsewhere, we would like to express our gratitude to them
once more at this point. Owing to their great commitment they have made influential contributions as
to contents and character of this book.
Last but not least, we wish to thank our wives Helga and Christine. Although they never had the
opportunity to be on board with us on any of the numerous and long expeditions, they still have
always understood our enthusiasm for marine geochemistry and have always given us their fuIl support.
Horst D. Schulz and Matthias Zabel Bremen, May 1999
VI
References
Anderson, R.N., 1986. Marine geology -A planet Earth perspective. Wiley & Sons, NY, 328 pp.
Berner, R.A., 1980. Early diagenesis: A theoretical approach. Princton Univ. Press, Princton, NY, 241 pp.
Boudreau, B.P., 1997. Diagenetic models and their impletation: modelling transport and reactions in aquatic
sediments. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, NY, 414 pp.
Broecker, W.S. and Peng, T.-H., 1982. Tracer in the Sea. Lamont-Doherty Geol. Observation Publ., 690
pp.
Chester, R., 1990. Marine Geochemistry. Chapman & Hall, London, 698 pp.
Clark, I. and Fritz, P., 1997. Environmental isotopes in hydrogeology. Lewis Publ., NY, 328 pp.
Engel, M.H. and Macko, S.A., 1993. Organic Geochemistry. Plenum Press, 861 pp.
Faure, G., 1986. Principles oflsotope Geology. Wiley & Sons, NY, 589 pp.
Grasshoff, K., Kremling K. and Ehrhardt, M., 1999. Methods of Seawater Analysis. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim,
NY, 600 pp.
Hoefs, J., 1997. Stable Isotop Geochemistry. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg NY, 201 pp.
Kennett, J.P., 1982. Marine Geology. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 813 pp.
Stumm, W. and Morgan, J.J., 1996. Aquatic Chemistry. Wiley & Sons, 1022 pp.
VII
Acknowledgements
This book would not exist without the help of all the colleagues listed below. With great personal commitment
they invested their time to thoroughly review the manuscripts. Along with the authors we are deeply indebted to
these reviewers, whose many constructive and helpful comments have considerably improved the contents of
this book.
Reviewer Institution review Chapter
David E. Archer University of Chicago, USA 9
Wolfgang H. Berger Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La lolla, USA 10
Ray Binns CSIRO Exploration & Mining, North Ryde, Australia 13
Walter S. Borowski Exxon Exploration Company, Housten, USA 8
Timothy G. Ferdelman Max-Planck-Institut für Marine Mikrobiologie, Bremen, Germany 7
Henrik Fossing National Environmental Research Institute, Silkebord, Denmark 8
lohn M. Hayes Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, USA 10
Bo B. lorgensen Max-Planck-Institut für Marine Mikrobiologie, Bremen, Germany 4
David E. Gunn Southampton Oceanography Centre, United Kingdom 2.1
Richard A. lahnke Skidaway Institute of Oceanography, Savannah, USA 12
Karin Lochte Institut für Ostseeforschung Warnemünde, Germany 5
Philip A. Meyers University of Michigan, USA 4
lack Middelburg Netherland Inst. of Ecology, Yerske, Netherlands 6
Nikolai Petersen Universität München, Germany 2.2
Christophe Rabouille Unite Mixte de Recherche CNRS-CEA, Gif-sur-Yvette, France 14
]ürgen Rullkätter Universität Oldenburg, Germany 5
Graham Shimmield Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory Oban, United Kingdom 3
Doris Stüben Universität Karlsruhe, Germany 11
BoThamdrup Oden se Universitet, Denmark 7
Cornelis H. van der Weijden Utrecht University, Netherlands 3
John K. Volkman CSIRO, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia 4
Furthermore we would like to acknowledge the assistance of Bernard Oelkers for translating four chapters and
for proof-reading most of the other chapters of the book.
We would also like to express our gratitude to numerous unnamed support staff at the University of Bremen.
IX
Table of Contents
1 The Solid Phase of Marine Sediments
DIETER K. FÜTTERER
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Sources and Components of Marine Sediments ......................... 1
1.2.1 Lithogenous Sediments .............................................. 2
1.2.2 Biogenous Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Hydrogenous Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Classification of Marine Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1 .3.1 Terrigenous Sediments ............................................... 12
1.3.2 Deep-Sea Sediments ................................................ 13
1.4 Global Patterns of Sediment Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1 .4.1 Distribution Patterns of Shelf Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.2 Distribution Patterns of Deep-Sea Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.3 Distribution Patterns of Glay Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.4 Sedimentation Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2 Geophysical Perspectives in Marine Sediments
2.1 Physical Properties of Marine Sediments
MONIKA BREITZKE
2.1.1 Introduction ...................................................... . 29
2.1.2 Porosity and Wet Bulk Density ....................................... . 31
2.1.2.1 Analysis by Weight and Volume ....................................... . 32
2.1.2.2 Gamma Ray Attenuation ............................................. . 33
2.1.2.3 Electrical Resistivity (Galvanic Method) .................................. . 37
2.1.2.4 Electrical Resistivity (Inductive Method) ................................. . 41
2.1.3 Permeability ...................................................... . 44
2.1.4 Acoustic and Elastic Properties ...................................... . 44
2.1.4.1 Biot-Stoll Model .................................................... . 46
2.1.4.2 Full Waveform Ultrasonic Gore Logging ................................. . 49
2.1.5 Sediment Classification ............................................ . 54
2.1.5.1 Full Waveform Gore Logs as Acoustic Images ............................ . 56
2.1.5.2 P- and S-Wave Velocity, Attenuation, Elastic Moduli and Permeability ......... . 56
XI