Manufacturing Engineer's Reference Book

885 Pages·1993·68.927 MB·English

by  D. KOSHAL

Manufacturing
Engineer’s
Reference
Book
Edited by
Dal Koshal
with specialist contributors
Butteworth-Heinemann Ltd
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP
@A member of the Reed Elsevier group
OXFORD LONDON BOSTON
MUNICH NEW DELHl SINGAPORE SYDNEY
TOKYO TORONTO WELLINGTON
First published 1993
0B utterworth-Heinemann 1993
All rights reserved. No part of this publication
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means and whether or not transiently or incidentally
to some other use of this publication) without the
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Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a
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90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England WlP 9HE.
Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission
to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the
British Library
ISBN 0 7506 1154 5
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the
Library of Congress
Every effort has been made to trace the holders of copyright
material. However, if any omissions have been made, the
authors will be pleased to rectify them in future editions
of the book.
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bath Press Ltd, Avon
List of
Contributors
T Z Blazynski PhD, BSc(Eng), CEng, MIMechE Jan Glownia PhD, Eng
Formerly Reader in Applied Plasticity Academy of Mining and Metallurgy
Department of Mechanical Engineering Institute of Foundry Technology and Mechanisation
University of Leeds Cracow, Poland
John Brydson R Goss BEng, CEng, MIMechE
Former Head of Department of Physical Sciences and Senior Application System Engineer (Industrial Product
Technology Division)
Polytechnic of North London Loctite (UK) Ltd
John L Burbidge OBE, DSc, HonFIProdE, FIMechE, E N Gregory CEng, FIM, FWeldI
FBIM Head of Advisory Section
Visiting Professor in Manufacturing Systems The Welding Institute
Cranfield Institute of Technology Cambridge
T C Buttery BSc, PhD, CEng, MIEE, AMIM John Hunt CEng, MIEE
Senior Research Co-ordinator at CIMTEX Director
School of Engineering and Manufacture Custom Engineering and Networks
De Montfort University, Leicester Bookham, Surrey
Harry L Cather CEng, MIEE, MBIM, MBA, MSc D Koshal MSc, PhD, CEng, FIMechE, FIEE
Senior Lecturer Principal Lecturer, Manufacturing Engineering
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
University of Brighton University of Brighton
E N Corlett DSc, PhD, MEng, BSc(Eng), FEng, FIMechE, Gordon M Mair BSc(Hons), DMS, CEng, MIEE. MBIM
FIEE, HonFErgS, CPsychol Lecturer
Emeritus Professor Department of Design, Manufacture and Engineering
Institute of Occupational Ergonomics Management (MEM Division)
University of Nottingham University of Strathclyde
Nottingham NG7 2RD
Gerald E Miller PhD
Roy D Cullum FIED Professor and Chairman, Bioengineering Program
Editor, Materials and Manufacture Texas A&M University, USA
Publication Services, Worthing
John S Milne BSc(Hons), CEng, FIMechE
Brad D Etter PhD Senior Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering
Assistant Professor, Bioengineering Program Department of Mechanical Engineering
Texas A&M University, USA Dundee Institute of Technology
William T File CEng, MIMechE D B Richardson MPhil, DIC, CEng, FIMechE, FIEE
William T File & Associates Formerly Principal Lecturer in Manufacturing Engineering
Consultants in Maintenance Engineering Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Aylesbury, Bucks University of Brighton
C J Fraser BSc, PhD, CEng, FIMechE, MInstPet Leslie M Wyatt MA(Cantab), FMI, CEng
Reader in Mechanical Engineering Independent Consultant and Technical Author
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dundee Institute of Technology
No reference book on manufacturing engineering will ever be Some reference books are primarily compendiums of tabu-
an unqualified success. It cannot be a panacea for those lated data, essential to the task of technical quantification.
seeking cures for the ills of poor management. At best it This volume is not such a compendium: it is mainly a
provides an insight into the multifarious techniques and pro- qualitative approach to knowledge gathering from which
cesses which combine to enable goods to be produced com- subsequent quantification may be attempted. It covers those
petitively in terms of cost, quality, reliability and delivery. aspects of manufacture which are essential for designing new
Within manufacturing organisations it is to be hoped that production systems or for managing exisiting factories. These
specialist knowledge exists in all the relevant fields, extending include materials selection, manufacturing and fabrication
beyond the confines of the chapters in a reference book. If it processes, quality control, and the use of computers for the
does not exist, the companies must ensure that they acquire it control of processes and production management.
by providing suitable training or by employing experts, if they The editor wishes to thank the specialist authors who
hope to survive. contributed their expertise for their forbearance during the
What purpose is served, then, by this sort of reference various stages of preparation, together with colleagues, past
book? The editor believes that, apart from those copies which and present, at the University of Brighton for their sug-
are destined to gather dust in executives’ bookcases to help gestions. Special thanks are due to Mr Don Richardson for his
provide an ambience of professional respectability, the book helpful suggestions on various chapters.
will be useful for top and middle managers who feel the need I would particularly like to thank my wife and family for
to widen their perspectives. With this in mind it has been their continued support during this project.
written in compartmentalised form, each section being free-
standing and capable of being understood as an introductory Dr Dalbir Koshal
text. It will also be of use to engineering students as an adjunct University of Brighton
to the more specific texts used in support of their lectures.
Contents
Preface 8 Metal Finishing Processes
Introduction . Abrasives . Grinding wheels and grinding
wheel selection . Mounting the grinding wheel . Balancing
List of Contributors and dressing . Grinding mechanics . Wheel wear . Grinding
ratio . Grinding forces . Coolant . Grinding processes .
Newer abrasives and grinding techniques . Honing . Honing
1 Materials Properties and Selection practice . Superfinishing . Coated abrasives . Machining
Engineering properties of materials . The principles with coated abrasives . Abrasive discs . Lapping . Polishing
underlying materials selection * Ferrous metals . . Blasting processes
Non-ferrous metals . Composites . Engineering ceramics and
9 Fabrication
glasses
Fasteners . Welding, soldering and brazing . Adhesives
2 Polymers, Plastics and Rubbers
10 Electrical and Electronic Principles
Introduction . General properties of rubber materials .
Survey of commerical rubbery materials . General Introduction . Basic electrical technology . Analogue and
properties of plastics . Survey of commercial plastics digital electronics theory . Electrical machines . Electrical
materials . Processing of rubbers and plastics . Design of safety
rubber components . Design of plastic components
11 Microprocessors, Instrumentation and
3 Metal Casting and Moulding Processes Control
Economics of casting and moulding . Sand casting . Low Basic control systems . Control strategies . Instrumentation
and high pressure die casting . Investment casting . Shell and measurement . Microprocessor technology . Interfacing
moudling . Sintering of computers to systems . Microprocessor-based control .
Programmable logic controllers . Robot applications
4 Metal Forming
The origin, nature and utilisation of plastic flow . Process 12 Machine Tool Control Elements
assessment . An outline of the theory of plasticity . Tool Machine tool control system - overview . Electric motors .
design . Rolling processes and products . Forging operations The servomotor control and amplifier . Transmission
. Extrusion . Cold drawing of wire and tube . Sheet-metal elements . Fluid power actuators . Fluid power actuator
forming . High-energy-rate operations . Superplastic and control valves . Feedback transducers . Conclusion
mashy state forming
13 Communication and Integration Systems
5 Large-chip Metal Removal Computer architecture . Computer operating systems .
Large-chip processes . Cutting-tool geometry . Cutting-tool Computer languages . Peripheral devices .
materials . Chip formation and cutting parameters . Forces Human-computer interfaces . Networks . Databases .
and power in metal cutting . Surface-finish considerations . Knowledge-based systems
Tool-life assessment . Economics of metal cutting
14 Computers in Manufacturing
6 Non-chip Metal Removal Introduction . Computer-integrated manufacturing .
Introduction . Electrical processes . Mechanical processes . Manufacturing control systems . Computer-aided design and
Thermal processes manufacture . Numerical engineering and control . Flexible
manufacturing systems . Industrial robotics and automation
7 Electronic Manufacture
Introduction . Assembly of through-hole components . 15 Manufacturing and Operations Management
Surface-mount technology . Surface-mount components . Introduction to manufacturing management . Types of
Assembly of printed circuit boards . Surface-mount- production . Systems theory . Management and the
component attachment methods prior to soldering . functions . General management . Product design .
Soldering . Cleaning . Automatic testing equipment . Production planning . Design of the material flow system .
Surface-mount-component placement machines . Assembly groups . Marketing . Production control .
Printed-circuit-board layout . Possible defects during Purchasing . Finance . Personnel . Secretarial function .
manufacture . Introducing surface-mount technology Conclusion
16 Manufacturing Strategy 18 Terotechnology and Maintenance
Manufacturing strategy and organisation . Strategies for Management of assets Life-cycle costing . Plant selection
increasing manufacturing competitiveness and replacement Measurement of the effectiveness of
maintenance . Op+ erational aspects of maintenance .
Preventive maintenance . Condition monitoring . Inventory
17 Control of Quality and maintenance
The concept of quality . Quality through integrated design .
19 Ergonomics
Standards . Material and process control . Process capability
c.o Pnrtordoul c.t Macecaesputraenmceen sta mof pfloinrgm s acnhdem suersf a. cSet a.t istical process TInhtreo aduutcotimona te.d R oofbfiocteic .s M* Canoumalp uatsesre-maibdleyd .m Tahneu efacoctnuorme i.c s of
Non-destructive testing ergonomics . Conclusions
1
Materials Properties
and Selection
1.6 Enginc: ering ceramics and glasses UlOY
1.6.1 Introduction 1/1OY
1.6.2 Standards 1/109
1.6.3 Clay based ceramics 11109
1.6.4 Oxide based ceramics 11110
1.6.5 Non-oxide ceramics 1011
1.6.6 Carbons and graphites 1/112
1.6.7 Miscellaneous ceramics 1/113
1.6.8 Glasses 111 13
1.6.9 Glass ceramics 11113
1.6.10 Mechanical properties 11113
1.6.11 Manufacturing processes 1/11S
1.6.12 The future prospects of engineering
ceramics 1/11S
Engineering properties of materials 113
1.1 Engineering properties of materials
Yield or strain offset 0.335
1.1.1 Elastic properties 0n.0.w02i
S=
Elastic or Young's modulus, E (units GPa) The stress re- A"
quired to produce unit strain in the same direction, i, in the
absence of restraint in the orthogonal directions: Ultimate tensile stress S, (units MPa) The maximum load at
E1- = c.!6 I-I (1.1) which a ductile material fractures in the tensile test divided by
the original cross-sectional area. S, is not to be confused with
where u is the stress and E the strain which it produces. A u, which is the true stress:
standard testing method is described in ASTM E231.
u, = &A&t-' (1.8)
Shear modulus, G (units GPa) The shear stress required to where A, is the cross-sectional area at the time of failure.
produce unit angular rotation of a line perpendicular to the S, depends on the dimensions of the specimen (the gauge
plane of shear: length is normally O.565vA0 but it may be 50 mm or some
other value) and the rate of application of stress. Both these
G = T4-I (1.2) parameters should be recorded.
where T is the shear stress and 4 is the angular rotation (in
radians). Fatigue endurance Related to S, rather than S,. The diffe-
rence between S, and S, is a measure of the safety margin
against accidental overload.
Bulk modulus, K (units GPa) The hydrostatic pressure p
Most modem design codes base the permissible stress in a
required to effect unit change in volume V
material on a factor (say 66%) of S,. Some other codes use a
K = pV(AV)-' (1.3) factor of S, as a design criterion. This is cost effective and safe
when using a ductile material such as mild steel.
Poisson's ratio u (dimensionless) The ratio of the strain in a Tensile ductility Reported either as elongation, e (units YO)
direction orthogonal to the direction of stress to the strain in
the direction of stress: 6 L-Lo
e=-=- x loo (1.9)
lJ = & 1.k &.I -I (1.4) L Lo
where 6 is the extension to fracture, or as reduction in area, AR
These four basic elastic properties apply to homogeneous and (units YO)
isotropic materials and are related by the equations:
E = 3K(1 - 2 ~ ) (1.10)
+
= 2G(l u)
Ductility is the property that confers tolerance to flaws to a
In the case of a material which has anisotropic elastic proper- material and is also an indication of material quality and
ties the terms used may have different meanings, and stresses correct heat treatment. Standards usually specify a minimum
and strains should be related using tensor analysis. ductility.
Standard procedures for tensile testing are given in BS 18,
ASTM E8, ASTM E345 and ASTM B557.
Flexural strength, S (units MPa) The calculated maximum
1.1.2 Tensile testing parameters
stress on the tensile side of a beam which fails when stressed in
When considering the properties obtained from the tensile test bending. It is used to measure the strengths of materials such
it should be realised that the results are always reported as as cast iron and ceramics which are too brittle to be tested
though the load was applied to the initial cross-section A, of using the standard tensile test. A beam stressed in three-point
the test piece. Any reduction of this cross-section is ignored. loading has the maximum stress applied only on one line on
The test subjects a sample of material of circular or rectangu- the surface. Multiple testing is required to produce results
lar cross-section, of a specific gauge length and equipped with which can be used in design and much higher safety factors
end pieces of larger section which taper smoothly to the gauge (see Section 1.6.10) are required than are used for ductile
length. materials tested using the standard tensile test.
When subjected to uniaxial tension beyond the limit of A standard testing method is described in ASTM C580.
proportionality the material within the gauge length elongates
plastically, contracts uniformly or locally transversely and
work hardens. The stress u in the material increases but, 1.1.3 Hardness
because of the decrease in the cross-sectional area A, the
Hardness is the resistance of a material to permanent defor-
stress S calculated from the load and the original cross-
mation by indentation or scratching. It is not a simple intrinsic
sectional area A, increases more slowly, attains a maximum
property of a material but a complex response to a test.
value S, and (usually) declines before the specimen breaks.
Vickers, Brinell and Knoop hardnesses compare the load and
the area of the impression produced by an indenter, Rockwell
Limit of proportionality The stress at which elastic behaviour hardness compares the load and the depth of the impression,
of a material is replaced by a combination of elastic and plastic Shore hardness is a measure of the rebound of an indenter,
behaviour, normally expressed as either the yield stress, S, and Moh hardness measures the ability of one material to
(units MPa), or the proof stress, S0.5y0, SO.~OSO/~,!y,o (units scratch another.
MPa), where the departure from elastic behaviour is indicated Vickers hardness, HV (the dimensions are strictly those of
by the suffix and S (or, in some codes P) is the load: force per unit area, but in practice Vickers and Brinell
1/4 Materials properties and selection
hardnesses are comparative numbers), is the quotient ob- 1.1.5 Fatigue
tained by dividing the load F (kgf) by the sloping area of the
S-N curve The graphical relationship between the stress S
indentation left in the surface of the material (in mm2) by a
and the number of cycles N required to cause failure of a
136’ pyramidal diamond indenter:
material in a fatigue test. This depends on the mean stress,
2F sin (136/2) frequency and shape of the stress cycle, the temperature and
HV = = 1.854Fd-’ (1.11) the environment, all of which should be specified. Note this
d2
applies to high cycle fatigue.
where d is the diagonal of the indentation. High strain fatigue is strain, not stress, related and the
Hardness is a measure of the wear resistance of a material. plastic strain per cycle resulting in failure is inversely
Used on metals the Brinell hardness value of a medium carbon proportional to N”’ for almost all engineering materials.
steel is directly related to the ultimate tensile stress, whilst the
Vickers hardness is related to the proof stress. Vickers, Brinell Fatigue endurance limit, u, (units MPa) The maximum stress
and Rockwell hardnesses can be used to ensure that heat below which a material is presumed to be able to endure an
treatment has been carried out correctly. infinite number of cycles. This applies only to certain specific
Hardness testing of ceramics is carried out with very light engineering materials such as, for example, steel and titanium.
loads to avoid failure of the material.
Standards for hardness testing are: Fatigue limit, (units MPa) The maximum stress below
which a material is presumed to be able to endure a specific
Vickers BS 427, ASTM E92
number of cycles; this is usually of the order of lo7 to los, but
Brinell BS 240, ASTM E10
may be lower for specific applications.
Rockwell BS 891, ASTM E18
The fatigue endurance limit and the fatigue limit are both
Schlerscope ASTM 4448
statistical quantities and depend on the same parameters as
the S-N curve (see above).
Standard methods for fatigue testing are BS 3518, ASTM
E513, ASTM E912, ASTM E206, ASTM E742, ASTM E466,
1.1.4 Fracture toughness and impact testing ASTM E606, ASTM 4 468 and ASTM E739. Other ASTM
standards are given in ASTM Standards Vol. 03;Ol.
1.1.4.I Fracture toughness testing
Fatigue life forp% survival (units MPa) The maximum stress
Plane strain fracture toughness, K,, (units N-m-”‘) The
below which not less than p% of tested specimens will survive.
limiting stress intensity required to cause crack extension in
plane strain at the tip of a crack when the stress is transverse to
Fatigue notch factor, Kf (dimensionless) Ratio of the fatigue
the crack. KZc and K3c are parameters corresponding to
strength of a notched to that of an unnotched specimen.
stresses in the plane of the crack.
Standard testing methods are given in BS 5447 and ASTM Fatigue notch sensitivity, g (dimensionless)
E399.
Fracture toughness is sometimes denoted by K1, or KI,.
(1.12)
Elastic-plastic fracture toughness, JI, The limiting value of
the J integral (which is a line or surface integral used to where K, is the stress concentration factor.
characterise the fracture toughness of a material having appre- When g approaches 1 a material is fully sensitive; when g
ciable plasticity before fracture) required to initiate a crack in approaches 0 a material is insensitive.
tension from a pre-existing crack.
1.1.6 Creep and stress rupture
Stress intensity to initiate stress corrosion, K I (~unit~s ~
N-m-3’2) The limiting stress intensity required to initiate Creep range The temperature range, usually above half the
propagation of a crack in a specific environment at a specific melting-point temperature (in kelvin), at which the design
temperature. stress computed from creep or stress rupture is lower than that
calculated from yield or 0.2% proof.
1.I .4 .2 Impact testing Stress to rupture, UR (units MPa) The tensile stress at which
a material will fail if held at a specific temperature for a
In contradiction to fracture toughness testing which quantifies
specific time, depending on the type of application.
a material property, Izod cantilever and Charpy beam type
impact test results are a function of the method of testing. In Stress to a certain creep strain, u, (units MPa) The tensile
particular, a machined rather than a fatigue-propagated notch
stress at which a material will creep to a specific strain E
is used. Results are expressed as the energy, J (in joules), (ignoring the initial strain on loading) if held at a specific
required to break the cross-sectional area behind the notch. temperature for a specific time. For a specific material u8a nd
Testing a number of specimens of body-centred metals,
UR are related.
ceramics and polymers over a range of temperature will reveal
a transition temperature below which brittle behaviour is Creep rupture elongation (units %) The percentage of the
observed. This is reported either as the fracture appearance original length by which a creep rupture specimen extends
transition temperature (f.a.t.t. in ‘C) at which half of the
before failure.
fracture surface is fibrous and half is crystalline, or as the
fracture energy transition temperature (in “C)a t the inflection
Larson-Miller parameter, P A parameter used to extra-
in the energy curve. This is a criterion of use for assessing
polate the results of creep rupture tests carried out at relat-
material composition, treatment and behaviour.
ively short times to longer times. The rate equation is:
Standards for impact testing are BS 131, ASTM E23, ASTM
+
E812 and ASTM E602 (sharp notch tension testing). P = T(l0g tR c) (1.13)