Manprint: An Approach to Systems Integration PDF
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MANPRINT AN APPROACH TO SYSTEMS INTEGRATION MANPRINT AN APPROACH TO SYSTEMS INTEGRATION Edited by Harold R. Booher United States Department of the Army Advisory Board Bruce A. Braun Deputy Director, MANPRINT United States Department of the Army Paul R. Chatelier Senior Vice President, Strategic Planning Perceptronics, Inc. Andrew P. Sage Professor and Dean School of Information Technology and Engineering George Mason University Thomas B. Sheridan Professor of Engineering and Applied Psychology Massachusetts Institute of Technology James A. Thurber Professor, School of Government and Public Administration The American University Inm!iI VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD ~ rCI)p'· A Division of International Thomson Publishing Inc. New York· Albany· Bonn· Boston· Detroit· London· Madrid· Melbourne Mexico City· Paris· San Francisco· Singapore· Tokyo· Toronto Copyright © 1990 by Van Nostrand Reinhold Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1990 r-rp I ,M A division of International Thomson Publishing, Inc. \.!} The ITP logo is a trademark under license The U.S. Government shall have the right to reproduce material from this book for internal purposes, but this shall not include the right to grant permission to others to reproduce any portion of this book or to distribute any reproduction of this material outside U.S. Government agencies. In all cases in which a U.S. Government employee reproduces a portion of this book, a copyright notice as it appears in this book shall be included on the first page of the reproduction, accompanied by a suitable credit to the book. For more information, contact: Van Nostrand Reinhold Chapman & Hall GmbH 115 Fifth Avenue Pappelallee 3 New York, NY 10003 69469 Weinheim Germany Chapman & Hall International Thomson Publishing Asia 2-6 Boundary Row 221 Henderson Road #05-10 London Henderson Building SE18HN Singapore 0315 United Kingdom Thomas Nelson Australia International Thomson Publishing Japan 102 Dodds Street Hirakawacho Kyowa Building, 3F South Melbourne, 3205 2-2-1 Hirakawacho Victoria, Australia Chiyoda-ku, 102 Tokyo Japan Nelson Canada International Thomson Editores 1120 Birchmount Road Campos Eliseos 385, Piso 7 Scarborough, Ontario Col. Polanco Canada M1 K 5G4 11560 Mexico D.F. Mexico All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems-without the written permission of the publisher. 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 QEBKP 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data MANPRINT, an approach to systems integration / edited by Harold R. Booher. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN-13: 978-94-01 0-6680-8 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-0437-8 001: 10.1007/978-94 -009-0437-8 1. Human engineering. 2. Systems engineering. I. Booher, Harold R. T59.7.M34 1990 620.8'2-dc20 90-12016 CIP CONTENTS Foreward vii Preface xi Acknowledgments xv Contributors xvii 1 Introduction: The MAN PRINT Philosophy 1 Harold R. Booher PART I: ORGANIZATION/MANAGEMENT CONTEXT 17 2 Total Quality Management and MANPRINT 21 Harold R. Booher / Keith M. Fender 3 Change Management Process 55 Robert E. Blanchard / William O. Blackwood 4 Management Integration Methods 95 Elliott Mittler / Glen M. Hewitt / Charles A. Vehlow 5 MANPRINT in a Systems Engineering Organization 127 John B. Shafer PART II: USER-CENTERED DESIGN ADVANCES 157 6 Conceptual System DeSign and the Human Role 161 Harold E. (Smoke) Price 7 Computer-Aided Ergonomic Design Tools 205 Joe W. McDaniel/Mark A. Hofmann 8 Designing for Human Error: Concepts for Error Tolerant Systems 237 William B. Rouse 9 Workload Assessment and Prediction 257 Sandra G. Hart / Christopher D. Wickens v vi CONTENTS PART III: SYSTEMS INTEGRATION METHODOLOGIES 297 10 The Acquisition Decision Process 301 Joyce L. Shields / Kenneth M. Johnson / Robert N. Riviello 11 Complex Environment Models in Systems Integration 321 Sam Parry / Dennis D. Collins / Sally J. Van Nostrand 12 MANPRINT Tools and Techniques 343 Harold R. Booher/ Glen M. !-lewitt 13 Integration of Training Systems and Analyses 391 Judy A. Oneal 14 Training and Aiding Personnel in Complex Systems 417 William B. Rouse 15 Practical Human Performance Testing and Evaluation 433 Robert T. Hennessy PART IV: SOURCES OF USER-CENTERED TECHNOLOGY 471 16 Human Performance Principles, Data and Data Sources 475 Harold P. Van Cott 1 7 National Human Performance Data Banks 493 Paul M. Haas / Rudy Laine 18 National Education and Training 519 Frederick A. Muckier / Sally A. Seven 19 Meeting the Challenge: Factors in the Design and Acquisition of Human-Engineered Systems 551 Kenneth R. Boft CONCLUSION 20 MANPRINT as the Competitive Edge 573 Harold R. Booher / William B. Rouse 575 Author Index 595 Subject Index 605 FOREWORD PERSPECTIVE This book is important to everyone concerned with the design and development of people-oriented systems. The Manpower and Personnel Integration (MANPRINT) program is a major military system procurement initiative adopted by the Army to focus on the needs and capabilities of the soldier. This program is unique in that it integrates six areas of user concerns which include human factors engineering, manpower, personnel, training, health hazards, and system safety throughout the development cycle of Army materiel. Even though MAN PRINT was developed for Army systems, the philosophy and techniques used in this program extend well beyond military systems used by soldiers. It can be applied to all products and systems used by people such as automobiles, airplanes, boats, control rooms, automated manufacturing, telecommunications, computers, and medical equipment. Interestingly, the impetus for MAN PRINT came from the senior managers who buy these systems. During the early and mid-1980s, two Army generals, M. R. Thurman and R. M. Elton, who served successively as the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, were instrumental in fostering MANPRINT development. By the end of the 1980s, this program was integrated throughout the standard procurement system of the Army. The formal statement of acquisition policy is contained in Army Regulation 602-2. Some aspects of the MANPRINT approach have been initiated in each of the other services and in the Office of the Secretary of Defense. A recent Department of Defense Directive (Number 5000.53), for example, provides guidance for all military departments in addressing the domains of MANPRINT in the system acquisition process. The concepts of MANPRINT are already spreading to other government agencies (e.g., the Federal Aviation Administration) and to other countries (e.g., the United Kingdom and West Germany). The focus of this book is on the philosophy, not the techniques, of MANPRINT. This philosophy is organized around four major considerations dealing with the Organization/Management Context, User-Centered Design Advances, Systems Integration Methodologies, and Sources of User Centered Technology in Parts I through IV, respectively. This book is appropriate for a variety of readers. Whether you are a user, designer, researcher, or manager of people-oriented systems, you should be interested in this philosophy. vII viii FOREWORD Users. Each of us use complex systems in our daily lives, and we are often frustrated with the improper design of equipment in our homes and offices. The philosophy of MANPRINT deals with these design problems by providing a procedure to keep the needs and requirements of the user central to the design and development of the products they will ultimately use. Part II and Part IV of this book which deal with user-centered design advances and technology sources are particularly appropriate to the user. These sections of the book address a general approach to providing information about user needs as well as highlight specific considerations, methods, and sources of information that are central to incorporating user requirements in the design process. DeSigners. Integration is key to the proper design of systems. People oriented design involves the selection of appropriate users, the appropriate training of the user, proper operation by the user, and adequate maintenance of the system by the user. The design philosophy of this book is unique in two aspects. First, there is an emphasis on the user of the system early in design which continues throughout the design process. Second, the MANPRINT design philosophy integrates the various system acquisition functions throughout design. For example, trade-ofts are often required between design and training, and these two functions must be considered simultaneously. Often design and training are viewed as totally independent in which training of the user is considered after the design is determined. By trading off these two considerations, total system cost and performance can be improved. Part III of this book which deals with systems integration methodologies is particularly appropriate for designers. In addition, the methods described in Parts II and IV should be used in the deSign process in order to make designs more user-centered. Researchers. This book also suggests several opportunities to the research community. In order to support the MANPRINT design philosophy, a variety of design techniques need to be developed. Methodological research needs to be goal oriented to provide direct support of these design procedures. Although many techniques are already available for use in the MANPRINT process, additional research is still needed. Examples of design-oriented techniques such as computer-based ergonomic design tools, workload analysis methods, and computer modeling procedures are provided in Parts II and III. In addition, the need for national human performance information centers is described in Part IV. Research disciplines dealing with human factors engineering, computer science, operations research, management science, and cognitive psychology should each be interested in research to augment the MANPRINT design philosophy. Managers. This book provides an overall orientation for managing the entire system acquisition cycle. This orientation is centered on the ultimate FOREWORD Ix user of the system. Managers of both the buyers and the builders of these systems need to work cooperatively in order to produce truly usable products. All four parts of this book deal directly with the functions and process of this management process. Specifically, Part I addresses the overall orientation and management context needed for enhancement of user centered design. More specifically, the acquisition decision process described in Part III provides an overall description of the management analysis and decision processes of MANPRINT in the acquisition of military systems, but commercial applications are noted as well. CHALLENGE Read this book from your perspective as either a user, designer, researcher, or manager. Consider this people-oriented design philosophy carefully. As an academic, I read the MAN PRINT philosophy and discovered a variety of implications for graduate training and research in human factors engineering. MANPRINT offers us an exciting opportunity to keep the ultimate user of the system central in the design process. Many of the lessons learned from the Army experience are now starting to appear. In the future, we should expect to have more case studies and examples of improved system acquisition and performance which can be related directly to the use of MANPRINT. In addition, I hope we will develop new methods and augment the training of the professionals needed to support this process. As users, designers, researchers, and managers of these systems, we must meet the challenge of MANPRINT to improve the design and utilization of our products. Perhaps we can make the decade of the 1990s the decade of user-oriented design. The philosophy of MANPRINT can help us reach that goal. Robert C. Williges Professor Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University PREFACE Global competition, demographic trends, and high-risk technology are conspiring to bring both military and commercial industry from "equipment" domination to a more "people-equipment" orientation. The purpose of this book is to describe a new systems integration philosophy known as MANPRINT (Manpower and Personnel Integration) which is involved in this change. Through a series of edited works which speak to the concepts and complexities of integrating people, machines, and organizations, it is written to those who want to know more about the MANPRINT role in a changing industrial culture. In a kickoff meeting before we actually started to write, I asked each author to focus their piece on an advanced technical or managerial concept that could help enhance the overall MANPRINT approach as it was being practiced by the Department of the Army. We set as a broad goal for each chapter that it describe the state of the art of each concept and explain its relevance to MAN PRINT as visualized in the symbol shown on the cover of this book. The symbol, by showing primary colors combining to become white, emphasizes the MANPRINT focus on the integration process. More specifically, we asked each contributor to reflect on the complex relationships among (1) people as designers, users, and repairers of machines, (2) government and industrial organizations which regulate, deSign, manufacture, and/or operate machines, and (3) methods and processes for design, production, and operation of machines. Although this goal was much more difficult to achieve than any of us envisioned at the outset, I believe the reader will see not only a fairly comprehensive treatment of specific topics, but also how the broader relevance of the topic to complex systems is appreciated by the contributors. I had in mind then, and even more so now that the book is complete, that human factors as an engineering discipline is fully ready to be an inherent activity within systems integration and that the MANPRINT approach can be beneficial in that regard. But just as surely, I am convinced that fairly wide sweeping organizational and managerial changes will be necessary for any organization to adopt MANPRINT or any similar human factors approach as routine in its systems project management. As a grass roots philosophy, the idea of human factors technology has great appeal. It seems only common sense that we should design things so they are safe and easy to use, break seldom, but are easy to fix if they do break. Moreover, the technology of human factors is sufficiently mature that if applied, I would estimate that 90 xl xII PREFACE percent of the problems users have with machines could be avoided. Yet, in my 20-plus years with the profession, little has changed on a national level. Human factors continues to be rediscovered nearly every time there is a well publicized disaster in which "human error" is involved. Major human factors programs were introduced in each branch of the military and the Department of Transportation in the 1960s, yet the nuclear industry knew literally nothing of the discipline until Three Mile Island drew it to their attention. Those in the discipline have always been "crying in the wilderness." It seems so obvious to design-in human technology early to avoid later problems. Why hasn't the engineering world recognized its importance? Charles Perrow, coming with a macro-view of human factors and its role in our society, has probably come closest to putting his finger on the problem ("The Organizational Context of Human· Factors Engineering," Administrative Science Quarterly, 1983; Normal Accidents, Basic Books, 1984). If we are to understand why "the principles of human factors engineers are so neglected" in most military and industrial organizations, we need to have a better appreCiation of the relationship between equipment design and organizational structure. After reviewing a wide variety of organizational systems that involve high risk technologies - "nuclear power plants, chemical plants, aircraft and air traffic control, ships, dams, nuclear weapons, space missions and genetic engineering" - Perrow asked, "Who bears the consequence of poor design in high-technology systems?" Except in highly publicized catastrophes, it is usually no one at all in the organization which produced the equipment. It is rather the operator or the repairman who, if not a victim himself, is at least tagged with "human error." Often those who rise to the defense of the operator or other users tend to blame the design engineers. That is perhaps understandable since there is so much human factors technology that the engineers seem to ignore. But, Perrow forces us to search deeper for insights that can lead to more profitable approaches. It is time to stop blaming the design engineer and take into account the pervasive social casual factors. inherent in organizations which make and operate our machines. Perrow describes the situation from an organizational analyst's point of view. He reminds us that managers and professionals respond to "rewards and sanctions and prevailing belief systems of top management." There is nothing to prevent top management, if it wishes, from informing designers about human factors principles. Furthermore, it is top management who "can require that these prinCiples be utilized." They alone "can structure the reward system so that it encourages designers to take these principles into account." The issues of rewards and consequences are at the very heart of the problem and suggest a solution. In the procurement of military equipment, we have often reflected on the reward/consequences system for program managers. They are rewarded for meeting near term costs and schedules and are usually far removed to another job should disastrous consequences occur later in the hands of the
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