Making Sense of Grammar

402 Pages·2004·19.341 MB·English

by  David Crystal

GRAMMAR
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Contents
Introduction
Introduction
6
Theoirnpytr oa ctice
10
Gramamnavdro cabulary
16
Sentences
l Thsee ntence 18
Tpyeosfs entence
2 32
Claeulseem ents
3 44
Clatuyspee s
4 46
Stateamneqdnu tess tions
5 58
Directives
6 68
Exclamaantedic ohnose s
7 76
Clauses
Thvee erlbe ment
8 82
Thseu bjeelcetm ent
9 90
Thoeb jeelcetm ent
10 94
Thceo mpleemleenmte nt
11 98
Thaed veerlbeimaeln t
12 102
Vocatives
13 104
Concord
14 112
Thvee prhbr ase
Verpbh rsatsreu cture
15 114
Regualniadrr r evgeurlbasr
16 116
Finaintndeo nfinite
17 120
Auxivleirabrsy
18 126
Othveerr bs
19 132
Multiv-ewrobrsd
20 134
Thmeo oodfts h vee prhbr ase
21 136
Actainvpdea ssive
22 140
Vertbe nses
23 150
Verabs pects
24 158
Futtuirmee
25 168
Modmaela nings
26 170
Thneo upnh rase
27N oupnh rsatsreu cture 176
28N ouns 180
29C ommaonnpd r onpoeurn s 182
30C ouanntnd o nconuonutn s 184
/
31V arinaobulsneis n:g aunlpdal ru ral 190
32I nvarnioaubnlse 192
33G ender 196
34C ase 200
35D eterminers 204
36T haer ticles 208
37P redeterminers 214
38P ostdeterminers 216
39P remodification 218
40P ostmodification 226
41R elactliavues es 232
42N oupnh raisnae psp osition 238
Pronouns
43P ronouns 240
44T ypoefps r onoun 244
45P erspornoanlo uns 248
46P roncoausne 252
47P rongoeunnd er 254
Adjectives
48A djectives 256
49T hfeu nctoifto haneds j ective 260
50A djecatniodvt ehwseo rrc dl asses 264
51A djeccotmipvaer ison 266
Advearnbadsd verbials
52A dverbs 268
53A dveprobsiiatli ons 272
54T hmee anionfag dsv erbials 278
55A djuncts 282
56S ubjuncts 284
57D isjuncts 286
58C onjuncts 288
Prepositions
59P repositions 294
60S imapnlcdeo mpplreexp ositions 298
61P reposmietainoinnagls 300
Reduacniednx gp ansdeinntge nces
62A bbrevtihsaeet nitnegn ce 302
63M ultsiepnltee nces 308
64C oordination 310
65S ubordination 320
66S ubordimneaatniionng:s 322
67C ommecnlta uses 330
68C omparcaltaiuvsee s 332
69R eporstpienegc h 334
Thien forsmtartuiocofttn uh sreee n tence
70S entiennfcoer mation 342
71V arytihineng f orsmtartuicotnu re 346
72E xistseennttieanlc es 354
Abotvhese e ntence
73S entceonncnee ction 356
Relaitsesdu es
74W ord-formation 370
75P rosody 378
76P unctuation 380
Index 386
Furtrheeard ing 399

Introduction
Thesya ayw eecka bne a l ontgi mienp oliwteiI\ca, sd ;e caidsae
shotritm iene ducatliionngauli stics.
Int hpea sfte ywe atrhsse,t uodfyg ramm,ia nar ne ducational
contheaxcsto ,m oefa geF.r obme iant go poifmc a rgiinnatle rest,
belobvyea df ewh,a tbeydm anayn,di g nobryem do sitth, a s
moveidn ttohc ee ntorfpe e dagoagtitceanlYt oiumo anys. t illolv e
ito,rh atietb ,u yto cua nno l ongiegrn oirtAe.n da si ti sn ot
goitnogg oa waiyti, sw elwlo rwthhi gleet ttiogn rgi wpisti ht .
Thecr ucqiuaels tiisHo:on w ?
Thibso oiksa s equteoRl e discGorvaemrm wahri,fc ihr st
appeairn1e 9d8 w8e,I\ b efotrhceeu rrreennta isosfia nntceer est
ing rammatmiactatlTe hrcseo. n cluosfvi aornisgo ouvse rnment
repowretrspe o inttihwneag yt owaarb drsa nveewl inguistic
worlbdut,th Een glNiasthi oCnuarlr icwualssu tmif lilyv eea orfsf .
Fewp eopwleers ee rioiunstleyr iensg treadm mtahre n.
Thsei tuawtaisno inc cealpyt uirnce adr tfooornbm y M clachlan
att hvee rfyr oonfRt e discGorvaemrm aWres. e aem anb egging
int hset reheotl,do iunhtgi hsa fto dro natiAornosuh.ni dns e ck
theirsaec arwdh iscahy 'sG:r ammEaxrp laTihnaendYk:o uB'u.t
thpea sserasri-egb nyo rhiinmag,n dh ihsa itse mptTyo.d asyu,c h
ap erswoonu lnde eadna ppointbmoeoanknt,hd i hsa wto ulbde
fuIl.
Whyh atsh ebreee snu cahd ramacthiacn ignse u,c ahs hotritm e?
Whyh avpee opslued debnelcyo smoei nterested?
6 Introduction
Grammhaerl ps
Thaen swleirie nsd evelopimnte hnitnska ibnotguh tne a tuorfe
languwahgiebc ehc awmied eklnyo wdnu ritnhg1e 9 90Tsh.e se
enabpleeodp tlose e teh atths et uodfgy r ammhaaras p oiInnta .
woridth, e lps.
Helwphsa tT?oi mpraop veer solna'nsg uaabgiel iTthieaerrsee.
foucro rlei ngudiosmtaiiwcnh si ncehe tdob ea ttentdoie,fd
chiladrrteeo nr eatchhe fiurpl olt enatsci oamlm unichautmianng
beinlgiss:t esnpienagkr,ie nagd,ai nndwg r,i tAinndig n.e acohf
thegsrea,m mhaaras f undamernotltaeopl l ay.
Thkee iyst o a pprechioawgt rea mmraerl attome esa niNnogb.o dy
wouledv edro utbhtie m portoafmn ecaen iinneg d ucational
practMiecaen.ii nsag tt hhee aorftc ommunicIatit swi hoywn e.
communi-cianot red teoru ndersetaaconhtde h rW.e n eetdo
follaonwdi nterwphraoettt h peero pdlowe h etnh etya lokrw rite,
anmda koeu rsecllveeaasnr de ffecwthiewvnee c aroruytt h ese
tasokusr selves.
Iti ss ometitmheosut ghhatmte aniinsng o thtiodn ogw ith
gramm-atrh aitit sju samt a ttoefvr o cabuWlhaerwnye s. a wye
argeo itno'g l otohkme e anionfag w orudp i na d ictiownea ry',
givteh iimsp resBsuiitoit ns a.m isleaidmipnrge sAs wioornod.n
itosw nc onvleiytsmt elaen ianstg h,bi rsi eexfp erismheonwts .
Writtheme e anionftg h feo llowwoirnodgn t hlei bneel ow.
charge
Ifm eanilnigv' eiasnw ordy'o,wu i blela blteod ot his.
7
Introduction
Buotf c ourysoecu a nndoott h ibse,c ayuosdueo n oktn owwh ich
oft hsee veproasls miebalnei onfcg hsa rIgh ea idn m inDdi.Id
1
meacnh arignte h seenosfee leccittoryrie, c onomoirmc isl,i tary
scieonrcc er,i minoorlo ongoeyf i, to st hmeera ninYgosuh? a vneo
wayo fk nowing.
'Giuvses omceo nteyxotwu,o 'u ladr g'uaen,td h ewnew iblela ble
toc aroruytt h tea sQku.i'rt ieg Thhta.it sa p rerequBiuhstoi wt e.
amI t og ivyeos uo mceo nteYxotuc? o urledp hrPaustteh :we'o rd
intaso e nteanncdte h,ew new iIkl n owwh ayto mue an.'
PreciIsfIep luytt.h weo ridn taos entetnhceyeno, wu i klnlo w
whaItm eaTnh.a itst hkee pyr incOinplblyyeu .s iwnogr dins
senteanrcweee sa blteo' maksee nsoeft 'h eTmh.a itsw hat
senteanrcfeeo. sTr heayr teh eqruei,lt iet etroa' lmlayk-,ec 'r eate
-senWsie.t hoseuntt enceasr,ve a wgouaremd,bs i gutohuisn gs.
So:
I rdoertehdte r ootpocs h arge.
In eetdoc hartghebe a tt.e ry
I'm goitnogc harhgiemw itahno ffence.
Thbea nwka nttoc haregxet irnat erest.
Byp uttcihnagr igneta os entewnerc eel,ia ttt oeo thweorr dasn,d
thucso nvaep ya rtimceualnairn g.
IfIr epeattheeedx perinmoewyn,ot wu o ubldea blteom akseo me
headwwaiyti ht .
Writtheme e anionftg h weo ridnb olodnt hlei bneel ow.
Io rdetrhetedr ootpocs h arge.
8 Introduction
Gramma ri st hset uodfhy o ws entemnecaenAs.n dt haitsw hyi t
helIpfsw .ew anttou nderstthamene da nicnogn vebyye d
senteannctdeo sd ,e veoluoarpb iltioet xyp raensdrs e sptoon d
thmiesa nitnhget,nh meo rwee k noawb ogurta mm,ta hrbee tter
wew iIbl e a blteoc aroruytt h etsaes ks.
'l<noawbiongugrt a mmmaera'ns st udyhionwwg ec onstruct
senteanncdien sp ,a rtihcouwlw aemr a niputlhapeta ero tfas
senteinnoc red teorg ivsea tisfeaxcptroerstyso wi hoant ever
meaniwnehg a vienm inIdta. l smoe ansst udyhionwwg eu se
senteannchdeo sw,o ucrh oiocfse e nteanfcfeeo ctthspe ero ple.
Peopsloem etiwmoersar byo gurta mmbaerc aiutss eee msso
complicBauttteh dei.rsa e g oorde asfoontr h ceo mplewxeia trye:
beinwghson eetdoe xprceosmsp ltehxo ugIhfwt esw .a ntteod
exproensltsyh m eo sptr imiitdievtaehs e,gn r ammwaoru lbde
versyi mpBluent.o h umasno ciieslt iytk hea t.
Grammhaares v oltvoee nda bulste oe xprtehsmeso sptr ofound
ands ubtnluea nocfem se aniIntcg a.mn a kaeIl t hdei ffetroe nce
thmee anionfag s enteinfwc eme a kaes licghhatn ignwe o rd
ord,ae lrtaew ro redn dipnugat,n e xtwroar idno ,rl eaovneoe u t.
Soo fttehnee,x apcoti bneti mnagd lei ients h dee tail.
Gramma ri sa Ila bohuotw w eh andalneky i nodfm eanionnag n,y
occasiinao nnsy,u bjWehcatt.e tvheneru anwceew anttoe xpress,
wen eegdr ammianor r dteore xprietWs.hs a tetvheneru ance
someoenlese ex prewsesn eeseg,dr ammianor r dteoru nderstand
itT.h eirsne o o thweary .
Grammiastr h set rucftouurnadlao tfoi uoarnb iltioet xyp ress
ourseTlhvmeeo sr.we e a raew aroefh owi tw orktshm,eo rwee
camno nitthomere anianngde fcfteiveonfte hswesa yw ea nd
otheurssle a nguIatcg aehn.e lfpo sptreerc idseitoeancm,tb iguity,
aned xpltohireti chnofee sxsp resasviaoinli anEb nlgel Ainsdih t.
cahne lepv ery-onnoeot n ltye achoefEr nsg lbiustthe ,a choefr s
anythfionargl t,le achiisun lgt imaam taetltyoe fgr e tttiogn rgi ps
witmhe aning.
Introduction 9