Major Threats to Endangered Orchids of Victoria, Australia

2005·1.2 MB·

by  Duncan, Michael

Selbyana 26(1,2): 189-195. 2005.
MAJOR THREATS TO ENDANGERED ORCHIDS OF VICTORIA,
AUSTRALIA
MICHAEL DUNCAN*
Flora Ecology Research, Arthur Rylah Institute, Department of Sustainability and Environment,
123 Brown Street, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia 3084.
Email: [email protected]
ANDREW PRITCHARD
Department of Sustainability and Environment, 78 Henna Street, Warrnambool, Victoria,
Australia 3280.
FIONA COATES
Flora Ecology Research, Arthur Rylah Institute, Department of Sustainability and Environment,
123 Brown Street, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia 3084.
ABSTRACT. Endangered terrestrial orchids in the public network of parks and reserves, on private land,
along roadsides, and in small vegetation remnants in Victoria, Australia, face a range of threats. These
include weed invasion, grazing by invertebrates and native and introduced herbivores, road maintenance,
and small population size resulting from habitat fragmentation. In addition, these areas have been affected
often and adversely by altered fire regimes or hydrology, introduced pathogens, mini ng and forestry activ
ities, recreational activities, and site disturbance. Many species are under threat of illicit collection, and
many suffer from inadequate public understanding of basic orchid biology, of conditions required for
seedling recruitment, and of the need to maintain specific pollinators and mycorrhizal fungi.
Key words: Orchidaceae, threats, endangered, Victoria, conservation
INTRODUCTION facing terrestrial orchids in Victoria include land
clearing, habitat fragmentation and small popu
The state of Victoria, in the southeast corner lation size, weed invasion, grazing by inverte
of Australia, contains a diverse orchid flora with brates and native and introduced herbivores, site
more than 370 taxa recognized. Orchids are disturbance, mining, forestry, recreational activ
among Victoria's natural treasures and must be ities, altered fire regimes or hydrology, and in
counted among its most threatened assets (Back troduced pathogens, These threats are com
house & Jeanes 1995). Almost half (170) of Vic pounded by a general lack of understanding
torian terrestrial orchid taxa have a state conser about the biology of native orchids, their my
vation status of rare (R), vulnerable (V), endan corrhizal associations, and the requirements of
gered (E), or extinct (X), using criteria of the their pollinators. Unfortunately, these threats
International Union for the Conservation of Na rarely occur in isolation.
ture and Natural Resources, also known as the In the past 15 years, a number of people have
World Conservation Union (IUCN 2001, TABLE undertaken assessments of the processes threat
1). The perilous status of such a large proportion ening the rarest orchids in Victoria (Beardsell &
of our orchid flora reflects the serious and wide Muir 1992; Backhouse et al. 1999a, J 999b,
ranging threats and threatening processes that 1999c; Berwick et al. 1999; Hill et al. 1999;
adversely affect the quality and quantity of nat Ingeme & Backhouse 1999; Todd 2000; Craig
ural vegetation. Although the problems being & Pritchard 2001a; Coates et al. 2002; Duncan
faced by orchids are shared equally by other et al. 2003). In this paper, we describe a range
threatened plants and animals, orchids have the of threats and threatening processes present in
potential to act as flagship species, that is, to Victoria, using examples of threatened terrestrial
highlight broader nature conservation and bio orchid populations. Based on DSE (2003), both
diversity issues relating to a decline in the extent the state and national threatened status of a tax
and quality of ecosystems. on are bracketed following the first mention of
The major threats and threatening processes each orchid taxon. Many orchid taxa, which are
yet to be formally described, are also yet to re
ceive a national threatened status, Nomenclature
* Corresponding author. follows that of Ross and Walsh (2003).
189
190 SELBYANA Volume 26(1,2) 2005
TABLE I. Summary of the conservation status of Vic cropping), less than 1 % of the pre-European
torian orchids at the state and national level, Aus cover ofWBPG remains (NRE 1997). Tiny rem
tralia, 2003. nants are restricted largely to roadsides, rail re
serves, cemeteries, and unimproved paddocks
Victoria that have so far escaped cultivation and heavy
Australia
DSE FFG EPBC grazing (Scarlett & Parsons 1993). Although ca.
Conservation status (2003) (1988) (1999) 12% of Victoria is protected in national parks or
Presumed extinct (X) 1 I 8 3 reserves, these include very little WBPG habitat.
Endangered (E) 73 50 27 Thus most of the remaining fraction continues
Vulnerable (V) 41 13 24 to be degraded by stock grazing, weed invasion,
Rare (R) 45 2 o and site disturbance. The WBPG has a high lev
TOTAL 170 73 54 el of endemism, with ca. 50% of orchid species
Source: DSE (2003). occurring nowhere else (Rouse 2002). As a re
Note: DSE = Victorian Department of Sustainability sult, 10 nationally threatened orchid species
and Environment; conservation assessment of orchids cling to survival in this region, while another
by the DSE, using IUCN 2001 criteria. two species are extinct.
FFG = Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act For example, Pterostylis basaltica D.L. Jones
1988; orchids listed under the FFG. and M.A. Clem. (E), P. sp. aU. bicolor (E), P.
EPBC = Commonwealth Environment Protection sp. aft'. cycnocephala (E), and P. sp. aU. mutica
and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999; orchids listed
(E) are all endemic to WBPG and were probably
under the EPBe.
once widespread across the ecosystem. Today
they occur together at the same single roadside
site, associated with a small, stony rise sur
DISCUSSION
rounded by farmland (Ingeme & Backhouse
In surveying the threats currently facing na J 999, Duncan et a1. 2003). Two of these taxa (P.
tive orchids in Victoria, Australia, we found a sp. aU. cycnocephala and P. sp. aff. mutica) oc
variety of factors but list the following as most cur nowhere else, while P. basaltica occurs on
significant. a second stony rise further along the same road
side, and P. sp. aff. bicolor also occurs in an
Land Clearing and Habitat Fragmentation unimproved paddock more than 100 km away.
The roadside site is less than 0.5 ha in area, and
Habitat destruction is the single greatest threat within this site, all four species are restricted to
to the Victorian orchid flora (Backhouse & the moss beds and shallow soils associated with
Jeanes 1995). In little more than 150 years of the edges of exposed basalt rocks.
European settlement, the natural vegetation in Protection of this site is critical. Until recently
Victoria has been altered enormously. Land there was opportunistic grazing of the roadside
clearing of more than 60% of the state for ag by stock from surrounding farmland. Also a po
riculture and urban development has greatly re tential exists for fertilizer drift or run-off from
duced the extent of many habitats. For example, these properties, as well as herbicide drift asso
early settlers grazed their stock extensively on ciated with weed spraying along the road. This
Victoria's native grasslands and grassy wood roadside also forms part of a strategic firebreak
lands and forests. They cut down the trees for in the district and as a result has been burnt an
housing and mining during the gold rush of the nually by volunteers for the last 30 years. The
18505, and then "improved" the pasture by in timing of this management practice appears to
troducing exotic grasses and applying fertilizers. have fortuitously favored native species over
Unfortunately some of these habitats were also weeds.
the most orchid-rich, and today they contain the
highest proportion of threatened species. Woolly Tea-Tree Scrub
Woolly Tea-Tree Scrub (WTTS), dominated
Western Basalt Plains Grassland by a dense overs tory of Leptospermum laniger
The Western Basalt Plains Grassland (WBPG) um (Sol. ex Aiton) Sm., was once widespread in
has a flora unique within Victoria. While mem swamps and along watercourses on moist, black,
bers of the Myrtaceae, Mimosaceae, and Epa peaty, alkaline soils in coastal areas of southern
cridaceae families dominate ecosystems across Victoria (Coates et al. 2002, Duncan et al.
much of the state, the WBPG is dominated by 2003). This habitat is well suited to agriculture.
Poaceae and Asteraceae families, with trees and As a result, what must once have been contin
shrubs restricted to water courses and rocky out uous populations of the nationally threatened or
crops (Rouse 2002). As a result of clearing this chids-Corybas sp. aU. diemenicus (E), Pter
fertile land for agriculture (principally grazing or astylis sp. aff. furcala (V), and P. tenuissima
SECOND IOCC PROCEEDINGS 191
Nicholls (V)-are now widely scattered, isolated diata D. Don), can cause significant changes to
populations. Only isolated pockets of WTTS re the vegetation structure and hydrology of !lites.
main, commonly as small stands in the wettest
corners of active grazing paddocks. Draining Altered Fire Regimes
and clearing have led to a highly fragmented dis
tribution across ca. 600 km of Victoria's south Fire is a major environmental factor in Aus
ern coastline. For example, C. sp. aff. diemeni tralia, and major habitats for terrestrial orchids
cus is only known from six populations, sepa are burnt regularly (Jones 1988). A critical fac
rated by a minimum of ca. 80 km. These pop tor is the timing and frequency of fires (Back
ulations are now almost certainly genetically house & Jeanes 1995). Most Victorian orchids
isolated. In addition, because of the small size have evolved in a pattern of summer (Decem
of these habitat fragments, these orchids are ex ber-February) fires, occurring when most orchid
posed to a range of other threats (particularly species are dormant. In many areas, however,
weed invasion, site disturbance, and altered hy this fire pattern has been altered or replaced with
drology). As a result, the thick L. lanigerum a no-fires regime, particularly close to urban ar
overstory is highly degraded at two sites. eas (Lavarack 1998). The tendency has been to
move to a slash/spray regime in urban areas, and
such a regime requires careful management to
Weed Invasion
avoid selection for weed species (particularly
aggressive pasture grasses). As a result, main
Weed invasion, a critical threat to orchids
taining a "natural" burning regime becomes
across almost all Victorian habitats, is particu very difficult when managing threatened orchid
larly threatening to the WBPG and WTTS hab
populations in urban areas. Poor urban planning
itats. Invasion of a habitat by weeds gradually with respect to conservation values has seen
changes the species composition of native veg housing developments surround tiny patches of
etation through a process of competition and native vegetation; and in an increasing culture
elimination. Weeds dominate by directly out of litigation, gaining permission to burn sites can
competing native species (including orchids), be near impossible.
changing the vegetation type and structure, and! Prasophyllum spicatum R.J. Bates and D.L.
or altering microhabitats, which can indirectly Jones (V) occurs in coastal heath and heathy
disfavor orchids. In addition, weed invasion can woodland on sandy loams, among the outer
alter the fire regime by significantly increasing southeast suburbs of Melbourne. Flowering is
the biomass of dry vegetation over summer. stimulated by hot summer fires (Jeanes & Back
Weeds also can promote soil erosion by forming house 2000), which in the past would have burnt
a dense canopy that eliminates the natural these sites every 5-10 years. With the urbani
groundcover (Cochrane 2001), and provide food zation of the surrounding land, however, fire has
and shelter for introduced herbivores that in tum been replaced by biennial slashing of the vege
may exert their own pressure on the native veg tation. Slashing can stimulate P. spicatum flow
etation (Blood 2001). ering, but it also favors many weed species, par
Significant weed species that are adversely af ticularly grasses such as Briza maxima and Vul
fecting orchid populations in Victoria include in pia bromo ides and perennial herbs such as Wat
troduced grasses. For example, Phalaris spp., sonia spp., which can quickly come to dominate
Vulpia bromoides (L.) Gray, Briza maxima L., sites.
and Nasella trichotoma (Nees) Hack. ex Are
chav. invade from surrounding agricultural land,
Altered Hydrology
particularly on the WBPG. Species such as rag
wort (Senecio Jacobaea L.), Scotch thistle (Cy Woolly tea-tree scrub (WTTS), a habitat that
nara cardunculus L.), and watsonia or Watsonia has suffered significantly from altered hydrolo
meriana (L.) Mill. var. bulbullifera (J.w. Mar gy, naturally occurs in swampy areas and along
thews & L. Bolus) D.A. Cooke commonly in creeklines. As the surrounding land has been
vade a range of habitats. In coastal areas, com cleared for agriculture and forestry, drainage
mon weeds include African boneseed or Chy patterns have been changed significantly at a
santhemoides monilifera subsp. monilifera (L.) landscape level, resulting in the environment
Norl., blackberries (Rubus fruticosus spp. aggre disfavoring the persistence of WTTS. At the
gate), and flatweeds (Hyposchaeris radicata L.). same time, the rise of agriculture in these areas
Larger shrubs and trees, such as coast wattle or has had the secondary effect of introducing
Acacia longifolia (Andrews) Willd. subsp. so weeds and farm stock to the WTTS habitat. Be
phorae (Labill.) Court, mirror bush (Coprosma cause some of these weed species use large
repens A. Rich., and Monterey pine (Pinus ra- amounts of water, the net result is that the site
192 SELBYANA Volume 26(1,2) 2005
dries out, and the eXlstmg WTTS habitat be Committee of Management is needed to ensure
comes degraded. Drier sites are further predis protection of the native orchid.
posed to invasion by more weed species and are A number of Victorian rare plants occur in
placed in a spiral of decline. Similarly, grazing small, rural cemeteries. One example is Praso
and trampling by stock can destroy vegetation phyllum suaveolens D.L. Jones and R.J. Bates
and cause increased erosion, leading to a gradual (E), which occurs in a small cemetery in central
decline in stand size and quality. Victoria. Three groups have a role in the man
In far eastern Victoria, one nationally threat agement of this site. First, the Cemetery Trust is
ened orchid species is under threat from altered responsible for the running and general upkeep
hydrology in its swampy habitat. Cryptostylis of the cemetery. The local shire council is re
hunteriana Nicholls (VE) occurs in spear grass sponsible for mowing/slashing and site works,
tree (Xanthorrhoea resinosa Pers.) swamps in and the Department of Sustainability and Envi
coastal areas of Victoria, New South Wales ronment is responsible for managing areas with
(Jeanes & Backhouse 2000), and Queensland in significant vegetation. The potentially competing
eastern Australia (Logan 1998). This orchid, interests of these groups must be accommodated
however, is threatened in all three states. In Vic when planning for the protection of this species.
toria, C. hunteriana occurs in swamps around a In all cases, the security of these sites and of
coastal holiday town. Unfortunately, as the pop the threatened orchids can change dramatically
ularity of this area as a holiday destination has as a result of something as simple as the current
increased, so too has the pressure on C. hunter on-site manager leaving. It is critical that all par
iana populations. As the town expands, new ties are kept informed about the orchid popula
roads are built, and land is cleared for new hous tion on their land, its progress, and its needs. In
ing subdivisions. This has resulted in many addition, everyone from the caretaker to the
swamps being either purposely drained for de board and management need to be educated re
velopment, or inadvertently degraded by drain garding the impact of the timing and methods of
age pattern changes, resulting from the creation particular management practices to ensure the
of the surrounding road network. Cryptostylis protection of each orchid.
hunteriana appears well adapted to an environ
ment that experiences seasonal inundation, and Site Disturbance
the removal of this event has seen the reduction
and/or elimination of the species at some sites. Site disturbance covers a wide range of
threats, which can act alone or in combination
Competing Management Activities to adversely affect orchids or their habitat.
Remnant vegetation remains on the urban
In a landscape where huge areas have been fringe of Melbourne and other regional towns,
cleared for urban or agricultural development, it and often these urban fringe areas are most at
is rare, outside of Victoria's system of parks and risk from site disturbance. For example, a few
reserves, for remnant vegetation to survive, un small populations of Prasophyllum spicatum oc
less the site serves a dual purpose. For example, cur in heathy grassland around the town of Crib
Cryptostylis erecta R. Br. (E) and Cryptostylis Point. These sites are under enormous pressure
hunteriana occur in a swamp in eastern Victoria from the activities of the surrounding commu
that has survived, because it is part of the land nity. Prasophyllum spicatum sites are used for
that forms the buffer around the end of the run dumping rubbish and garden waste, which
way of a regional airport. Thus, for many years smothers plants and introduces weeds. They are
this area has been managed solely for the pur slashed a few times a year to reduce their fire
pose of airport safety, but luckily this has not risk. They play host to the BMX bikes of the
caused any significant change to the site hy local children; and even worse, some local
drology, and the slashing regime has not disfa youths have taken to driving their cars in the
vored these orchid species. mud on one site during the wet, winter months.
All but two plants of the 350 known Calad This activity in particular has had a devastating
enia xanthochila D. and C. Beardsell (E) plants affect on that site. In addition, P. spicatum sites
occur at a single site in rural western Victoria. are under threat of being developed for housing.
This 100-ha site originally was owned by the In the goldfields of central Victoria, Ptero
local doctor, who never developed it for agri stylis despectans (Nicholls) M.A. Clem and D.L.
culture. Instead the doctor's passion was in Jones (E) is threatened by site disturbance
dulged, and a golf course was constructed on the caused by gold prospectors. During the gold
site. Today, the C. xanthochila popUlation sur rush of the 1850s, serious site disturbance oc
vives in the rough along one of the fairways, curred across this entire region, as miners
and the ongoing cooperation of the golf club "turned-over" the topsoil in their search for
SECOND IOCC PROCEEDINGS 193
gold and cut down most of the trees to sure-up pathogen has been recorded infecting the roots
mine shafts and build houses. In recent years, a of more than 400 native plant species, mostly in
new generation of gold miners has returned to Victoria and southwest Western Australia (Weste
this area, with powerful metal detectors, capable 1972, Shearer & Smith 2000). It has been de
of recognizing metallic objects of a smaller size scribed as the most destructive plant pathogen
and at a greater depth in the soil. The relatively ever recorded in native vegetation in this and
shallowly buried P. despectans tubers have been possibly any region (Newhook & Podger 1972).
dug up extensively at one of its five known sites The direct impact of Phytophthora cinnamomi
by gold prospectors eager to uncover the next on orchid species is unclear, but in general they
big nugget. appear to be at least field resistant (M. Duncan
unpubl. data). Its indirect effect on orchid spe
Grazing cies, however, can be devastating. In Victoria,
Paracaleana disjuncta D.L. Jones (E) is known
Grazing by native herbivores (principally kan from a single colony of about 50 plants that oc
garoos and wallabies) usually is not a problem cur in a 0.5 ha area adjoining the Grampians NP.
in native vegetation; however, as the area of na The plants grow in moss beds in natural gaps in
tive vegetation shrinks because of land clearing, the heathy understory or around the trunk bases
leaving a highly fragmented patchwork of bush, of Eucalyptus baxteri (Benth.) Maiden and
the grazing pressure on the remnant vegetation Blakely ex J.M. Black. Death of some heath spe
increases significantly. Too many animals and cies (e.g., Xanthorrhoea australis R. Br.) caused
not enough vegetation is not a good scenario for by P. cinnamomi is occurring within 50 m of
highly palatable orchids. Add a drought to this this population, and it is only a matter of time
scenario, and grazing pressure is further mag before it spreads into the site. Eucalyptus baxteri
nified. In unprotected vegetation (e.g., land not is susceptible to this pathogen. A common
part of the public system of parks and reserves), change in the floristic composition caused by P.
grazing by introduced (e.g., sheep or cattle) or cinnamomi is a reduction in the size and fre
feral (e.g., rabbits or hares) herbivores can be quency of gaps in the ground layer. These gaps
devastating. In addition, the impact of sheep and are often colonized by sedge species (e.g., Lep
cattle can be exacerbated by their trampling of idosperma laterale R. Br. and Gahnia sieberiana
any plants that escape grazing and their intro Kunth.) following the removal of the susceptible
duction of weed seed in their feces. heath understory species (Duncan & Keane
In the box-ironbark forests of Victoria, large 1996). The future of the P. disjuncta population
flocks of 20-30 white-winged choughs are a is far from certain.
common site. The size of small ravens or crows,
they forage on the forest floor feeding on inver Natural Disasters
tebrates and larvae, using their strong, sickle
shaped beaks to probe the ground, vigorously Natural disasters are perhaps the most frus
flipping sticks, stones, and leaf litter out of the trating of all threats because of their unpredict
way (Falkingham 1995). White-winged choughs ability and often large-scale impact. In Victoria,
also fancy orchid tubers. For example, upon dis natural disasters generally are associated with
covery of a colony of Pterostylis despectans ro environmental extremes such as floods, drought,
settes, the choughs carefully dig down and ex or bushfires.
tract the plant with the tuber in tact. They then On 8 January 2003, lightning started 85 bush
devour the tuber and carefully place the rosette fires across northeast Victoria. Eight of these
and collar beside the hole, as if to tell you what fires could not be contained and united to be
they've done. A flock of choughs can devastate come the largest wildfire in Victoria in a 65-year
a population of P. despectans in just a few period. Burning for 59 days, the fire burnt ca.
hours. l.2 million ha of mostly native vegetation. One
of the most severely effected areas was Omeo
in the Victorian Alps, which includes the only
Introduced Pathogens
population of Pterostylis aenigma D.L. Jones
The introduction of the soil-borne fungal and M.A. Clem. (E). The popUlation is located
pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands has in a broad, flat seasonal creekline that flows out
led directly to large-scale changes in the floristic of the surrounding steep hills, which were se
composition of native vegetation in botanically verely burnt by the fire. In March 2003, how
significant areas of Victoria, such the Grampians ever, less than a month after the fire, a localized
National Park (NP), Brisbane Ranges Np, and storm event delivered 80 mm of rainfall to these
Wilsons Promontory NP (Weste & Law 1973, hills in less than an hour. The result was a mas
Weste 1986, Kennedy & Weste 1986). This sive movement of sediment from the recently,
194 SELBYANA Volume 26(1,2) 2005
denuded hilltops, which moved down the creek chidaceae: Caladeniinae) 1998-2002. Victorian
and came to a rest along the flats of the P. aenig Department of Natural Resources and Environ
ma site. ment, East Melbourne, Victoria.
Backhouse, G.N., A. Webster, and J. Arnott. 1999c.
In November 2003 at the upstream end of the
Recovery Plan for the Sunshine Diuris Diuris fra
site, the creek had cut a channel through the me
grantissima (Orchidaceae: Diuridinae) 1998-
ter-deep silty layer of sediment from the sur 2002. Victorian Department of Natural Resources
rounding hills. The creek continued to largely and Environment, East Melbourne, Victoria.
follow its original path. By the time it reached Beardsell, C.M. and A.M. Muir. 1992. A Recovery
the P. aenigma popUlation, the sediment depth Plan for Rosella Spider-orchid (Caladenia rosella
was less than 20 cm, and slightly lower where G.W. Carr). Report to the Australian National
the water was running. Surprisingly, P. aenigma Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra.
Berwick, S., A. Moorrees, and G. Backhouse. 1999.
rosettes and buds could be seen emerging
Draft Recovery Plan for Audas' Spider-Orchid
through the sediment beneath the flowing water.
Caladenia audasii (Orchidaceae: Caladeniinae)
Almost 50 flowering plants were recorded when
1998-2002. Victorian Department of Natural Re
official monitoring occurred in late November
sources and Environment, Melbourne.
2003 (1. Turner pers. comm.). Monitoring in pre Blood, K. 2001. Environmental Weeds: A Field Guide
vious years has recorded 23-59 flowering plants. for SE Australia. Cooperative Research Centre for
Thus P. aenigma has survived the fire and the Weed Management Systems, University of Ade
subsequent sediment movement; howevel~ many laide, South Australia.
tons of sediment still sit in the creekline less Coates, F., J. Jeanes, and A. Pritchard. 2002. Recovery
than 50 m upstream of the orchid population. Plan for Tweuty-five Threatened Orchid Taxa in
Victoria, South Australia, and New South Wales
The continuing movement of this sediment will
2003-2007. Victorian Department of Natural Re
be influencing the site for many years to come.
sources and Environment, Heidelberg, Victoria.
Cochrane, A. 2001. Alien Invaders: Identification,
CONCLUSIONS Control, and Monitoring of the Most Recogniz
able Environmental Weeds of Melbourne and Sur
The prognosis for many of Victoria's 170 rounds. Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne, Vic
threatened orchid species is not rosy. The reality toria.
is that the threats and threatening processes at Craig, A. and A. Pritchard. 2001. Recovery Plans for
work in this state are formidable. Without inten Three Species of Orchid in Southeast South Aus
sive management intervention, many orchid spe tralia and Southwest Victoria: Caladenia richard
siorum (Little Dip Spider Orchid), Caladenia cal
cies are facing extinction within the next 10
cicola (Limestone Spider Orchid), and Pterostylis
years. Thankfully, both the State and Common
tenuissima (Swamp Greenhood) for 2001-2005.
wealth governments have recognized the urgen
National Parks and Wildlife, South Australia and
cy of the situation, and have facilitated the prep Victorian Department of Natural Resources and
aration of recovery plans for 59 nationally Environment, Warrnambool, Victoria.
threatened species (including many of those dis DSE. 2003. Advisory List of Rare or Threatened
cussed in this paper). In addition, an effective Plants in Victoria-2003. Victorian Department of
network has been established of officers working Sustainability and Environment, East Melbourne,
with threatened orchids, government scientists, Victoria.
universities, local orchid enthusiasts, and orchid Duncan, M.J. and PJ. Keane. 1996. Vegetation chang
es associated with Phytophthora cinnamomi and
societies. Cooperatively they are implementing
its decline under Xanthorrhoea australis in King
strategies to combat each threat and create an
lake National Park, Victoria. Aust. J. Bot. 44:
environment where orchid numbers can grow
355-369.
into the future. Duncan, M., A. Pritchard, and F. Coates. 2003. Recov
ery Plan for Fifteen Threatened Orchids in Vic
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