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Summer Journal of Ethrtobiology 127-139 1999 19(1): AND MAIZE CHANGE A DIVERSITY CULTURAL IN MAYA AGROECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE MICHAEL STEINBERG K. Anient Geography-Anthropology of Maine University Southern of Gorham, Maine 04038 ABSTRACT.- Much many been demonstrated in has crop plants. It "improved" once so called landraces declines *y found dwindling number of people. that certain maize landraces are planted by a my research However, Instead, this decline unrelated to introduced varieties. is significance is has found once cultural that traditional varieties decline their among the how change weakened by change. This paper examines cultural social paper also Mopan Maya This southern Belize. has affected the maize diversity in and role in among Mopan, their discusses the symbolic meaning of maize the maize evolution Keywords RESUMEN.- ncu"« iMûiviciN.- Muchas nan iviucnas investigations «-»• - t>e , muchos Jugares se En la variedad de cultivos introducidos en plantas locales. v« media las decae demostrado indigenas locales que de plantas diversidad la en "m^n^Ha*" llevadas a catx> ei vvaarriieeddaaddpe*s enn Mis pesquisas "mejoradas introdiiridas. Mop «c ucnue, enrre 10s iviavas lviopaan, eiicuiuiaiî> ^v. em barco esta ^"^ bin ahora. de maiz sembradas por menos gente g , estan siendo variedades con disminucion no ninguna relacion las tiene ™ia tradicionaies variedades que investigaciones han encontrado las ts cambios sociales. '^ debido a < vez su significado cultural se debilita ^ Lo Mopan Mayas ^^ examina entre los cambios culturales los e ensay ^, este Asismismo, diversidad de maiz en sur de Belice. el Mopan su roi e Mayas y significado simbolico de maiz entre los maiz. misioneros. culturales, cambios Palabras variedades de maiz, claves: ^ la »v»mrp>aar^Kdelesvarit'twde j des sur RESUME conduit - Plus de recherche avait la varietes ppelee les autteI ° decline ^.^ Maya que a locales la diversite des varietes parmi les ^ ^ su dans ^ Ma le recherche ^ nombre amelioree sont introduit. ma ^ du Mopan locales J- yan varietes que a trouve certaine rappui aucun des gen ^ traditionnelles a>a. que ~- AAuu rtrruouuvvce exai ddee papier introduits. lliieeuu cceellaa,, j'aaii Let ts. Hpmen^tsocial. ^ J lecnanoe m par que leur importance culUireUe a faibli un eff<?t ^ _ ™7 parmi les *nssymboliqu comment chaneement culturel le , l]Ssile5 u.«~ au revolution dans missionaires t^.r^l les : STEINBERG 128 No. Vol. 19, 1 INTRODUCTION among Maya present this case study of the relationship farmers' knowledge I of local maize (Zea mays L.) varieties, the symbolic meaning of these and varieties, management of these landraces under conditions of cultural and economic change Mopan in southern Belize. Several themes regarding maize and Maya the are ad- swidden Mopan Maya dressed: the milpa system which maize first, of the in the is focal crop examined. Next, the symbolic value maize Mopan Maya is of in culture discussed. The author then Mopan is discusses the role farmers play in maize evo- And lution. the author examines maize Mopan lastly, diversity in the cultural region and discusses the factors that are undermining Much has been written concerning abandonment the Many became available. diversity Mooney programs more some agricultural landscapes (Harlan Frankel 1975; in In- how demonstrates and economic cultural alter the perception and use of maize varieties an indigenous landscape where in maize historically has been and remains the focal crop and Cleveland 1993; (Soleri and Soleri Smith Zimmerer 1995; 1996). This paper the is result of periodic fieldwork conducted between 1994 and 1998. Interviews were conducted Mopan with 89 number farmers of pertaining the to maize varieties planted in the past and present, changes agroecological prac- in their and tices the symbolic meaning maize of Most were conducted varieties. interviews m with farmers San Antonio and San Mopan Nalumka, however, Jose; Santa Cruz, in and Santa Elena were also included (Fig. Both informal and formal interviews 1). were conducted Mopan with farmers concerning and prac- past present agricultural and two Mopan tices. villagers with 1 survey 89 formal experience administered interviews. Topics investigated through number formal of interviews included the maize grown varieties by Mopan farmers, the perception and meaning of maize to how inaividuals, and traditional agroecological and changed within practices beliefs me lifetime of the informant. Informal however, interviews covered similar topics, mese were conducted in situations where a formal meeting was not possible (e.g. meeting someone in a village shop San or along a San Antonio and roadside). In Sp f ai s stematic mple y sa was used TWh to select farmers for formal interviews. u hn f ° botamcal market surveys were f conducted Punta Gorda, the district in canitaf mVeSh8a ° te Cr mong con^ P selection a Mopan were the Maya. These surveys ? m 1 1 C"year period of order **ord to changes the varieties in maize being lold ^J* reSearch haS been con fj^f agriculture <iucted concerning traditional S™T* and ~ ma SpeciaU Much with y *ze. of this research has been concerned the J' ° ™ Crop v f - " f ^sity domestication Some prominent recent ex- hearths. amples of this research include Zimmerer and diversity studies change crop 's of cultural Summer JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 1999 129 S FIGURE Belize l.-Mopan southern villages in ^ZTmt Beta* ^^ txuvu* in Peru aanndd DDoouucchheess 1199991U),, ^ and BnJ "and (1988, 1990, 1991; 1995; ^ change in technological md draces diversity under aop conditions of lan lWf^Z farming y traditional ,< 1994), Brush's extensive survey of we as other stud; ll ^ Mexico and South Amereriiccaa (1986, Louette (et aL 1997), Mem ^ :y ^ by Merrick (1987), MeydcQ Clawson and °^ Altieri (1985), radlb of «W diver- and ^^ crop description t with Wilken's broad (1987) concerned rch îty f prominent, Mexico > in Guatemala. Some yet still recent, less ^ Anderson s ^s on pro- ca and includes domesti ti sity agriculture traditional ^^^ZZes^mi), Wellhausen s and and Guatemala (Anderson 1946, * 19/u, et al. Guatemala (Johannessen > . 1952) . (Wellhause Mexico survey of maize diversity in STEINBERG No. 130 Vol. 19, 1 An theme more important of these works, particularly the recent literature how and cited, the role farmer's play in maintaining crop diversity this diver- is sity affected bv cultural and economic chanee. This chapter will follow a similar is maize among Mopan Maya the CULTURAL SETTING was Mopan Maya This study conducted in the cultural region in the Toledo southern The Mopan Maya an group District in Belize (Figure present interesting 1). through which to study agricultural changes because their overall culture has dra- matically changed over the past 50 years (Wilk and Chapin Examples of 1990). Mopan economy, growing educational opportunit women (Steinberg 1998). Mopan The economy moved from subsistence-based market-oriented to after when government Mopan 1940 the constructed a road from San Antonio, the largest community, to Punta Gorda, the primary market town (Figure This road cre- 1). Mopan an ated outlet for agricultural products, thereby generating cash incomes an economy was in that previously income and subsistence-based. Rising contact with greater Belizean society resulted growing economic and in social aspirations, among young especially These what adults. rising expectations motion Gre- set in gory (1987) called the "young man's revolt/' in which the youngei male refused to participate in the previously mandatory h civil-religious economic down were turned upside and as prestige honor were no with longer associated and experience, but instead with cash and material wealth. More recently, a young women's revolt has taken More Mopan women place. receiving high school educations than any Women who time at in the past. ad high school have opportunities beyond the control of their families. In the pry Wilk 1987; marria and involving less parental interference. traditional gender where woman's roles a economic depen- security totally is dent on her husband's earning potential changing is also with the help of outside development Most agencies. formed women's villages cooperatives in the past years earn income by five that running corn and mills /or selling handicrafts to tourists. Before corn mills were women established uv in villages, spent three to Mopan mainstay of the income money women more have them Mopan within Other areas of change over the past 50 years where include: change, political 1) moved and lar oriented; religious change, where 2) since the 1970s large numbers the Catholic Church and left joined Protestant evangelical churches. Summer JOURNAL OF ETHN0BI0LOGY 1999 131 MOPAN THE MILPA SYSTEM Mopan slash-and-burn practice Mesoamerica and The May November The and second (matahambre). (sotzilnil) the in involves burnin November weeds some burn milpas However, farmers will their in if to left rot. and becoming grasses are too prolific. Mopan May among because farmers plant planting a time of anxiety the if is in farmers many Mopan have begun adjust farmers to therefore, t May looms However, always large or early June. risk ir Mopan an important part of Religious ceremonies are ci and planting season prior to the arrival of the rains in J burn and farmers most communities vices are held in of make timely arrival order assure the r« offerings in to Mopan between milpas range primary forest than rather growth vegetation ways young second from created Mop from primary are so distant forests lm Antonio mo than hv e no aUowed regenerate for *^£ma to , of primary Usually, the forest is forest. m Al farmers this Mopan same plot again. years before the clear the regenerate to would allow thetr field they longest the five year fallow period is I and cleared are fields that indicating farmers 89 with 28 of the before clearing, burned every year. MAIZE MEANING OF AND IMPORTANCE CULTURAL most *^£^£%U r who consiaercu are x . grow Even those y females, maize. g and who buy from their could it * retired ^^™ WM ^^ ~ w MMooppan wno emu trameu ~- nurse continues to P clothing, § who dresses*in and two modern home, but story income <~ th , maize. with burn, and plant a field milpa and clear, the v have * Mopan continue to X Mop an instead because the being with synony maize growing is ^ and milpa ^^- maize. Maintaining a ^^ c Maya. Maize part of the is particula MesottOU throughout! importance Maize has similar b , This lowland areas. Maya and highland gnificent No. STEINBERG Vol. 19, 1 132 As peasants (Galinat 1995). a income today's rural provides for temples as well as maize are Maya, hundreds of varieties of importance the long-term to of result its physical settings The diffusion into different grown dozens environments. of in growing adapted short to ranging from those that are has resulted in varieties condi- desert that thrive in drought varieties seasons high altitudes to resistant at modern or more important in a historical There no other single crop that is tions. is Mesoamerica. indigenous cultures of sense the to One FIGURE 2-Maize varieties that are planted by the Mopan. through three, left to and {chuck six right, are the white variety (sic nil), four five are the red variety nil), (kun through ten are the black variety (bush and eleven the yellow variety nil nil), is Among have mytho- Mopan, the particularly older villagers, maize continues to maize Mopan grow logical legends attached to (Steinberg 1996). The four local it maize. (ixim) varieties (Steinberg 99, 100, 101, 102, WIS), and one hybrid variety of These include the black variety (bush nil in Mopan), the red variety (chuck nil), The white the yellow variety (ktin and a white variety (Figure nil), (sic nil) 2). when variety harvested as "green" corn that used in tamales, or harvested is is mature and used animal yellow, red, for feed or for All varieties (white, tortillas. white and black) take about 4 months mature, but when harvested green, the to variety is harvested after 2 months, making the fastest maturing variety. it grown The symbolic value of maize linked with Of the four varieties is color. its by Mopan, and the black red maize have most significance the cultural spiritual / attached to them. Because of their symbolic importance, these two varieties are They grown not sold. are for household consumption, especially at celebrations. Mopan The claim the colors of maize represent the different temperatures at which was it created. This belief is described in the following folktale: The Maya saw wewe along the ant maize kernels (leaf-cutter ant) carrying the a path one day. The Maya were hungry and wanted maize, but the it to collect took too long to collect from each ant. So the Maya followed the ant to the source it of the corn, which was a huge rock with a very thin crack. The crack was too thin Mopan for the to reach in and get the maize. The Maya knew they would need help to crack open the rock and woodpecker to get the maize. So they asked the crack open the The woodpecker So the stone. but he could not do alone. tried, it Summer JOURNAL 1999 OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 133 Maya Maya The woodpe Dck. told the lightning struck the The rock. lightning comb bright red (probably a Lineated woodpecker). When rock the rock burst open, burnine some of the seeds accordi where >ot the lightning struck the roc The was black variety created under then and iety, the yellow, the white ditions. The association of maize color with different temperatures has also been noted Maya in Guatemala cultural areas in (Johannessen 1982). Another According folktale links the black color to sexual promiscuity. to informants: women was takine lunch when met was handsome man. she The a stranger along the path. stranger a him him When in the forest. punishment maize Mopan from straying Mop the Mopa mentioned above, the round When maize planted too white stained the maize growing around him. is it plants Mopan maize splattered close to red maize, they cross-breed and the claim the is with Christ's blood. brewed with Medicinal powers maize. Maize kernels are are also attributed to who weak or hot water make individuals are maize soups strengthen to teas or to maize pro- made from black lethargic. Several informants claimed that tortillas becoming without vide work long time extra strength, allowing a person to for a eatm maize ceremonies Mopan common in vi figure prior to or during Maya Catholic feast days are A th who in maize participating are porridge served the individuals to is through the all-night This stamina is said to help participants maintain their most sacre< services become more pure by eating the as well as spiritually individua Mopan served to crop maize porridge also plants (maize). This is performance that vr< Mopan masked-dance participate in the deer dance, a become quii has performed Mopan times but recent in villages, in all climb attempt young men the village tc (Steinberg in During 1997). this celebration, poie on top oi tne money placed a greased pole in an effort to retrieve a satchel of energy them with the The provide order participants are fed maize porridge in to and power needed reach the top of the pole. to STEINBERG No. Vol. 19, 1 134 made Chicha made fermented maize "brew/' Maize also into chicha, a is is with weevils. The weevils are believed to from maize kernels that are infested Mopan common Chicha a feature in potency. play a role in alcoholic is still its rum and Unfortunately, feeds the even with the availability of beer. it villages, usually most economically marginalized in the villages- alcoholic appetite of the the old or destitute (which are often one in the same). The white variety preferred for tamales and tortillas, the staple food of the is Mopan which eaten every meal. The white variety described as being the at is is work with when ground into a paste, followed by the black and red easiest to it is and The yellow variety described as being extremely tough difficult to varieties. is Mopan work with by several women in the San Antonio corn mill. The claim the yellow variety grown almost solely for animal feed because of its hard texture. is Mopan with The value maize above other crops they grow, referring to it all ceremonies respect and never wasting This respect can be witnessed during it. commemorating and Personal certain agricultural events, like planting harvesting. and material sacrifices are offered to the spirit of the maize plant to help ensure a good These from before plant- crop. sacrifices include abstaining sexual intercourse maize, ing or holding a feast to honor the spirit of maize. Regarding the use of maize never supposed be wasteful manner. Maize fed is to treated in a careless, is way While animals maize to in a that considered to be respectful to the plant. it is on is the ground, individuals are never supposed to trample on it. No other plant grown by the Mopan has such cultural importance assigned to Other These such it. crops, as rice or beans, are merely described as cash crops. plants are not crops with great cultural importance and are not assigned signifi- cant symbolic status. MOPAN ROLE MAIZE IN Mopan desired These traits. traits include kernel ear and resistance to size, size, color, Robust pests. kernels from large ears are selected and aside for the next season's set from from stunted or ears, the uniform one informant color are selected for seed. In home was Each a small, but growing, pile of future seed corn of the red variety. was kernel a brilliant ruby color, with no trace of any other variety's imprint. Seed corn similar. any lack aside be used to in the future. made Little effort is to isolate individual The short- varieties in separate fields. age of arable land due to population growth has number of fields limited the available to a single farmer. As a result of this growing pressure on land resources, many farmers do not have the luxury of using different multiple several fields in microenvironments. The Mopan system have not maintained pedological the folk many described in studies In in other ethnoecological Wilken 1987). settings (see my survey, only maize five of the 89 informants claimed of that certain varieties Summer 1999 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 135 And environments. maize of adaot ?tv is to specific micro-environmental Mopan conditions. most none Instead, claim of the varieties are and specialized, any that can be planted where others have been planted. The Mopan do recognize must grown that different varieties be in separate sections of a field the if characteristics of that variety are to be maintained. Because of the close proximity many of the mixed different varieties, ears bear or speckled kernels. MAIZE MOPAN DIVERSITY THE IN CULTURAL Mopan maize planted four local of individuals planting two small these in the Of 89 farmers surveyed, especially the red variety. iuur bun piant red maize, while t 17 plant the black variety. Informants claim more and that individuals planted the red blac past. Although may common wh they never have been as as the eties, of 89 farmers do remember interviewed. 55 claimed thev and informant, black maize were "much more common (Maya Catholic) holidavs were ys ctfe many have found researchers scapes, the maize hybrids. decline of these not due the introduction of varieties to is Only my Hybrids are three individuals commercial hybrids. survey planted in some advantages available from do missionary Mennonite and they offer farmers, mature in that they wind eusts becau: >v Mopa K)t preferred by the while in stora p-p ignifi One hvbrid introduction. unrelated to iw on behind Mopan the influence agroecology recent changes is in traditional southern Belize estant villages in evangelical The evangelizing of rural missionaries. v » e began As missionaries entered lag in earnest middle and 1970s. in the late ^ abandoned be began to traditional, Maya and practices synthesized Catholic beliefs _ _^ _ ___ (Gregory .., 1987; Steinberg 1997). , may maize ««« The Maya Catholic faith. Maya beliefs to was from traditional maize transferred rnnr a«v«"^ ^.i «__ £/lu-inri£c ¥r% nil6 III i «. Maya laya uatnouc rengiun *£-^-£i £A u ~ n , . Maya However, this cu.,ure. evan convert to more individuals ignifican — — — - w - - j- the between five percent level maize black growing farmers 7 the 1 maize who grew red individuals STEINBERG 136 Vol. No. 19, 1 Maize Table 1 .- Correlation Coefficients. Probabilities in parentheses AGE RELIGION PLANT IN YELLOW WHITE BLACK RED FATHER PAST? MAIZE MAIZE MAIZE MAIZE PLANT THEM? AGE 1.000 (0.000) RELIGION 0.0600 1.0000 (0.5764) (0.0000) PLANT IN 0.2475* 0.2415* 1.0000 PAST? (0.0194) (0.0226) (0.0000) YELLOW 0.0302 -0.2470* -0.0047 1.0000 MAIZE (0.7788) (0.0196) (0.9648) (0.0000) WHITE -0.2487* -0.1259 -0.0964 -0.0495 1.0000 MAIZE (0.0188) (0.2397) (0.3687) (0.6449) (0.0000) BLACK 0.2295* 0.2390* 0.3448* 0.0663 -0.3085* 1.0000 MAIZE (0.3971) (0.0241) (0.0009) (0.5373) (0.0033) (0.0000) RED 0.0909 0.2347* 0.0964 -0.1765 0.0471 0.0326 .0000 1 MAIZE (0.3971) (0.0268) (0.3687) (0.0980) (0.6614) (0.7620) (0.0000) FATHER 0.1770 0.1235 -0.0947 -0.2518* -0.0589 -0.0297 0.1706 1.0000 PLANT (0.0971) (0.2487) (0.3772) (0.0173) (0.5832) (0.7820) (0.1100) (0.0000) THEM? farmer why ig explained he did not participate in sue claimed his father's generation planted black maize Instead, he olanted white maize cause he perceived as having it be less religious and because could significance, it embrace &ci a uui counterparts, eageuy cmw«'-*- ici npw icti the P • u °n r 81 romises new P a and of identity break with perception a the thP "nlH ways The May ways when old came from time the a Maya The civic /religi life. SUpP rted each villa ge day with celebrated patron Publi^rn ,° ' its saint's feast u S communal ™^ nd among and Even la labor systems were c»l strong. Mon.n f \ ^ (Wh a make many ttT StiU u ° " the Mopan), tradi- P oi nons l êTssoc ,t W^ ** ° ld ofT S are bein abandoned because of the divisive S nature of the missionary work. Entire communities and ha families which arity motivated indivi many tinue traditions is declining nee the connection religious — May ism wpakpn^H aban are is fr^Hifir»r»ai \r^riptips doned for those which ^"iLuidiiy m neutral. Prnrpcf*^ S a "T• o. ries 'T forbid converts to participate in ties t M,aya Catholic When culture. u "bom anc 'xiv. i-uiivciiD, lie ui w/vj^k. *-«•»"— again up means rituals giving culturally. This