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Magill's Encyclopedia of Science: Animal Life PDF

1929 Pages·2002·30.6 MB·English
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Magill’s Encyclopedia of Science: Animal Life Carl W. Hoagstrom, Ph.D., Editor SALEM PRESS, INC. MAGILL’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SCIENCE A N I M A L L I F E This page intentionally left blank MAGILL’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SCIENCE A N I M A L L I F E Volume 1 Aardvarks–Endoskeletons Editor Carl W. Hoagstrom, Ph.D. Ohio Northern University Project Editor Tracy Irons-Georges Salem Press, Inc. Pasadena, California Hackensack, New Jersey Editor in Chief: Dawn P. Dawson Project Editor: Tracy Irons-Georges Photograph Editor: Philip Bader Copy Editor:Leslie Ellen Jones Production Editor: Joyce I. Buchea Research Supervisor: Jeffry Jensen Page Design: James Hutson Research Assistant: Jeff Stephens Layout: Eddie Murillo Aquisitions Editor: Mark Rehn Additional Layout: William Zimmerman Graphics by: Electronic Illustrators Group, Morgan Hill, Calif. Cover Design:Moritz Design, Los Angeles, Calif. Salem Press, Inc. Copyright © 2002, by Allrightsinthisbookarereserved.Nopartofthisworkmaybeusedorreproducedinanymanner whatsoeverortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopy, recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutwrittenpermissionfromthecopy- rightownerexceptinthecaseofbriefquotationsembodiedincriticalarticlesandreviews.Forinformation address the publisher, Salem Press, Inc., P.O. Box 50062, Pasadena, California 91115. SomeoftheupdatedandrevisedessaysinthisworkoriginallyappearedinMagill’sSurveyofScience: LifeScience,editedbyFrankN.Magill(Pasadena,Calif.:SalemPress,Inc.,1991),andinMagill’sSurveyof Science:LifeScienceSupplement,editedbyLauraL.MaysHoopes(Pasadena,Calif.:SalemPress,Inc.,1998). ¥ ThepaperusedinthesevolumesconformstotheAmericanNationalStandardforPermanenceof Paper for Printed Library Materials, Z39.48-1992 (R1997). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Magill’s encyclopedia of science : animal life / editor, Carl W. Hoagstrom. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 1-58765-019-3 (set : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-58765-020-7 (v. 1 : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-58765-021-5 (v. 2 : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-58765-022-3 (v. 3 : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-58765-023-1 (v. 4 : alk. paper) 1. Zoology—Encyclopedias. I. Hoagstrom, Carl W. QL7 .M34 2002 590’.3—dc21 2001049799 First Printing printed in the united states of america PUBLISHER’S NOTE Animalshavealwaysbeenasourceoffascina- ant,andquail;Pigsandhogs;andDogs,wolves,and tionforhumans.Wehavesoughttoexplaintheor- coyotes),andwhilethereareentriesonDomestica- igin and evolution of life, to classify the planet’s tionandZoos,petsandfarmanimalsarenotdis- manyorganismsinalogicalmanner,andtostudy cussedassuch.Earlyhumansareaddressedinan theformsandbehaviorofcreaturesasdiverseas evolutionarycontext,andmodernhumansarein- jellyfishandelephants.Magill’sEncyclopediaofSci- cluded only for interspecies comparison or for ence:AnimalLifeoffersaccessible,easy-to-under- their efforts to coexist with other species. stand scientific information for high-school, un- All entries begin with ready-reference infor- dergraduate,andgeneral readersonasubjectof mationabouttypeofanimalscienceandfieldsof significantpopularandacademicinterest.Thisil- study.Nextisalistofprincipalterms,withbrief lustrated,four-volumeencyclopediarefocusesand definitions. Numerous creative subheads guide expandsonMagill’sSurveyofScience:LifeScience. thereaderthroughthemaintextoftheentry.Ev- AnimalLiferevisesandupdates108articlesfrom ery essay ends with an annotated bibliography; that 1991 set and its 1998 Supplement and then thosereusedfromMagill’sSurveyofSciencehave adds277newmainentries,aswellasmorethan been updated with recent sources. Species over- threehundredtextualsidebars,factboxes,andbi- views, at 1,000 or 2,000 words, discuss notable ographies. Photographs, tables, and maps com- anatomyandphysiology,habitat,behavior(food plement the text. sources,socialgroups),andreproductionandin- Animal Life concentrates on science in its dis- cludean“AnimalFacts”sidebarlistingclassifica- cussion of nonhumans from the kingdom Ani- tion, geographical location, habitat, gestational malia:invertebrates,insects,arthropods,amphib- period,lifespan,andspecialanatomy.Numerous ians, reptiles, fish, birds, and mammals. The 385 biographicalentries—onsuchprominentfigures entries, ranging from 1,000 to 3,000 words each, in the study of the natural world as John James surveyawiderangeoftopics:anatomy(Antennae, Audubon, Charles Darwin, and Jane Goodall— Feathers,andTails);behavior(Defensemechanisms, appearas500-wordsidebarswithinmainentries, Hibernation, and Nesting); classification (Bears, as do some issue-oriented discussions such as Crustaceans,andMammoths);ecology(Herbivores, habitat destruction and poaching. In addition, Poisonousanimals,andSymbiosis);evolution(Fos- most longer entries provide one or more brief sils, Mutations, and Natural selection); fields of sidebarshighlightinginterestingsubjectsrelating study (Biogeography, Paleontology, and Zoology); to the text. geography and habitats (Fauna: Australia, Fauna: A complete Alphabetical List of contents ap- GalápagosIslands,Deserts,andRainforests);physi- pears in the back of all four volumes, as does a ology (Cold-blooded animals, Reflexes, and Smell); CategoryListusingthefollowingheadings:am- reproductionanddevelopment(Asexualreproduc- phibians, anatomy, arthropods, behavior, birds, tion,Lifespans,andMetamorphosis);andscientific carnivores, cell biology, classification, ecology, methods(BreedingprogramsandPopulationanaly- evolution, fields of study, fish, genetics, geogra- sis).Theemphasisofthisencyclopediaisonani- phy,habitats,herbivores,humanorigins,insects, mals in nature; the entries on domestic animals invertebrates,mammals,marinebiology,marsu- alsocovertheirwildkin(Chickens,turkeys,pheas- pials,omnivores,physiology,populationbiology, v Magill’s Encyclopedia of Science: Animal Life prehistoric animals, primates, reproduction and North America, the Pacific Islands, the Pacific development, reptiles, and scientific methods. Ocean,andSouthAmerica.TheBiographicalList Volume4offersmanyusefulappendices.The of Scientists consists of brief profiles of fifty-one Glossaryprovidesimportanttermswithsuccinct important figures in animal science, past and definitions.AtableofAnimalTerminologygives present.AGeneralBibliographyoffersannotated the names applied to the males, females, young, sources,andboththeJournalsandtheOrganiza- andgroupsofvariousanimals.TheTimeLineisa tionsappendicesprovidecontactandgeneralin- graphicdepictionoftheevolutionarytreeacross formation. The encyclopedia concludes with a geological periods. The Classification Table lists comprehensive subject Index. all phyla, subphyla, superclasses, classes, sub- Thecontributorstothisworkareacademicians classes, superorders, orders, infraclasses, subor- fromavarietyofdisciplinesinthelifesciences.We ders,superfamilies,andfamiliesinthekingdom thankthemforgenerouslysharingtheirexpertise; Animalia.AGeographicalListofAnimalsbreaks theirnamesandaffiliationsarelistedinthefront species down into various areas: All continents matter to volume 1. Special acknowledgment is (exceptAntarctica),alloceans,Africa,Antarctica, extendedtotheEditor,CarlW.Hoagstrom,Ph.D., the Arctic, Asia, the Atlantic Ocean, Australia, fromOhioNorthernUniversity,forhisinvaluable the Caribbean, Central America, Europe, the guidance. GalápagosIslands,Madagascar,theMiddleEast, vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Contributor List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Breeding programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Butterflies and moths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Aardvarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Adaptations and their mechanisms . . . . . . . 3 Camels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Adaptive radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Camouflage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Cannibalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Allosaurus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Carnivores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Altruism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Cats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 American pronghorns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Cattle, buffalo, and bison . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Amphibians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Cell types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Centipedes and millipedes. . . . . . . . . . . 185 Animal kingdom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Chameleons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Antelope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Chaparral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Antennae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Cheetahs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Ants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Chickens, turkeys, pheasant, and quail. . . . 197 Apatosaurus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Chimpanzees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Apes to hominids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Chordates, lower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Arachnids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Circulatory systems of invertebrates . . . . . 210 Archaeopteryx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Circulatory systems of vertebrates . . . . . . 216 Armadillos, anteaters, and sloths. . . . . . . . 71 Clams and oysters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Arthropods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Claws, nails, and hooves. . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Asexual reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Cleavage, gastrulation, and neurulation . . . 227 Clines, hybrid zones, and introgression . . . 232 Baboons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Cloning of extinct or endangered Bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Beaks and bills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Cockroaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Bears. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Coevolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Beavers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Cold-blooded animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Bees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Beetles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Competition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Biogeography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Convergent and divergent evolution. . . . . 271 Biology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Copulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Bioluminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Coral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Courtship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Crabs and lobsters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Bone and cartilage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Cranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Brachiosaurus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Crocodiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Crustaceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 vii Magill’s Encyclopedia of Science: Animal Life Death and dying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Eagles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Deep-sea animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Ears. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Deer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Echinoderms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Defense mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Ecological niches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Demographics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Ecology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Deserts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Determination and differentiation . . . . . . 331 Eels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 Development: Evolutionary perspective. . . 337 Elephant seals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Digestion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Elephants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Digestive tract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Elk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Dinosaurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Embryology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 Emotions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Endangered species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 Dogs, wolves, and coyotes. . . . . . . . . . . 370 Endocrine systems of invertebrates. . . . . . 456 Dolphins, porpoises, and other Endocrine systems of vertebrates. . . . . . . 461 toothed whales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Endoskeletons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 Domestication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Donkeys and mules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Alphabetical List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III Ducks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 Category List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX viii CONTRIBUTOR LIST Sylvester Allred J. H. U. Brown Thomas Coffield Northern Arizona University University of Houston Independent Scholar Emily Alward Robert A. Browne Sneed B. Collard Henderson, Nevada, District Wake Forest University University of West Florida Libraries John T. Burns Jaime Stanley Colomé Earl R. Andresen Bethany College California Polytechnic State University of Texas at Arlington University, San Luis Obispo Janalee P. Caldwell Michele Arduengo Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Alan D. Copsey Promega Corporation Natural History Central University of Florida University of Oklahoma Iona C. Baldridge Greg Cronin Lubbock Christian University William P. Carew University of Colorado at Denver Dominican College of Blauveldt Erika L. Barthelmess James F. Crow St. Lawrence University Mary E. Carey University of Wisconsin University of Oklahoma Barbara C. Beattie Charles R. Crumly Independent Scholar Ranès C. Chakravorty San Diego Natural History Museum College of Health Sciences, Roanoke, Richard Beckwitt Virginia George Dale Framingham State College Fordham University Kerry L. Cheesman Alvin K. Benson Capital University Dennis R. Dean Brigham Young University University of Wisconsin—Parkside Victor W. Chen Milton Berman Chabot College Peter L. deFur University of Rochester Virginia Commonwealth University Richard W. Cheney, Jr. Environmental Defense Fund P. E. Bostick Christopher Newport University Kennesaw State College Rene M. Descartes David L. Chesemore State University of New York, Catherine M. Bristow California State University, Fresno Cobleskill Michigan State University Laura A. Clamon Gary E. Dolph William R. Bromer University of Illinois at Urbana- Indiana University, Kokomo Pepperdine University Champaign Philip J. Dziuk Alan Brown Dale L. Clayton University of Illinois Livingston University Southwestern Adventist College ix

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This four-volume set of encyclopaedias offers accessible information on the animal kingdom. Entries focus on non-humans from the animal kingdom, from insects to reptiles to mammals. Early humans are addressed in an evolutionary context, and modern humans are included only for interspecies comparison
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