[Magazine] The Biblical Archaeologist. Vol. 55. No 3

63 Pages·1992·14.75 MB·English

BibliAcalr chaeologist
Perspectiveosn the AncienWt orldfr omM esopotamtioa the Mediterranean Vol.5 5 No.3 Septembe1r 992
Geographic
Information
Systems:
UtilizingM odern
to
Technology
the Past
Study
I J
f v
AMERICAN SCHOOLS
Biblical
Archaeologist
OF ORIENTALR ESEARCH
Perspectiveso n the Ancient World
ADMINISTRATIVOEF FICE from Mesopotamiat o the Mediterranean
ASOR,3 301 NORTHC HARLESS TREET
BALTIMOREM, D 21218 P.O . BOXH .M., DUKES TATION
(410)5 16-3498 DURHAM,N C 27706 (919)6 84-3075
,,OS0 FW
Biblical Archaeologist( ISSN0 006-0895)i s publishedq uarterly
I,Z K (March,J une,S eptember,D ecember)b y ScholarsP ress,8 19
0 - Houston Mill RoadN E, Atlanta,G A 30329, for the American
Schools of Oriental Research( ASOR).
n (aIl
t Subscriptions:A nnual subscriptionr atesa re $35 for individuals
and $45 for institutions. There is a special annual rateo f $28 for
retirees.S ingle issues are $9 for individualsa nd $12 for institu-
EricM . Meyers,P resident tions. In foreignc ountries,a dd $5 for annual subscriptionsa nd
JamesW .F lanagan,F irst Vice Presidentf or Publications $2 fors ingle issues. Orderss hould be sent to ASORM embership/
WalterE . Rast,S econd Vice Presidentf or ArchaeologicalP olicy SubscriberS ervices, P.O.B ox 15399,A tlanta, GA 30333-0399
Charles U. Harris,C hairmano f the Boardo f (telephone:[phone];B itnet SCHOLARS@ EMORYU1).
RobertH . Johnston,V ice Chairmano f the BoTarrudos tfe es
Paul E Jacobs,V ice Presidentf or the Corporation Trustees Postmaster:S end addressc hanges to Biblical Archaeologist,
LydieS hufro,V ice Presidentf or Development ASORM embership/SubscribeSre rvices,P .O.B ox 15399,A tlanta,
George M. Landes,S ecretary GA 30333-0399.S econd-classp ostagep aid at Atlanta, GA and
RogerS . Boraas,A ssistant Secretary additionalo ffices.
Holden Gibbs,7 )easurer
Copyright' 1992b y the AmericanS chools of Oriental Research.
MochingL eung,A ccountant
RPaumdoT luprhnH e.r DA, odrmneinmisatnrnat,A ivdemA sinsiissttarnatt iveD irector All rights reserved.N o portiono f this journalm ay be reproduced
by any processo r technique without the formalc onsent of the
AmericanS chools of Oriental Researcha nd ScholarsP ress.
ASORN ewsletter;V ictorH . Matthews,E ditor Authorizationt o photocopyi tems for personalo r internalu se is
BiblicalA rchaeologist;E ricM . Meyers,E ditor grantedf or librariesa nd other users registeredw ith the Copy-
Bulletin of the AmericanS chools of Oriental Research; right ClearanceC enter (CCC)T ransactionalR eportingS ervice,
JamesW .F lanaganE, ditor providedt hat the copier pay the base fee of $1.00 per copy plus
Journaol f CuneiformS tudies;W illiam L. Moran,E ditor $. 10 per paged irectly to CCC, 27 CongressS treet,S alem, MA
01970. This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying,
W.F .A lbrightI nstitute of ArchaeologicalR esearch( AIAR) such as copyingf org enerald istribution,f or advertisingo r
P.O . Box 19096,9 1 190 JerusalemI' srael. promotionalp urposes,f or creatingn ew collective works,o r for
SeymourG itin, Director resale.0 006-8095/$87$ 1.00 + .10
JoeD . Seger,P resident
Carol Meyers,F irst Vice President Editor-in-Chief EricM . Meyers
JoyU ngerleider-MayersonS,e cond Vice President; Associate Editor DavidC . Hopkins
Acting BoardC hair Book ReviewE ditor JamesC . Moyer
JohnS pencer, SeniorE ditor ToddM cGee
Secretary.Treasurer Designer LauraH ughes
BaghdadC ommittee for the BaghdadS chool EditorialC ommittee
JerroldS . Cooper,C hairman WalterE . Aufrecht JoA nn Hackett lack Sasson
Near EasternS tudies EdwardF Campbell A. T Kraabel Neil A. Silberman
The JohnsH opkins University Douglas L. Esse Thomas E. Levy MarkS . Smith
Baltimore,M D 21218 VolkmarF ritz P. KyleM cCarter StuartS winy
LawrenceT Geraty David W McCreery L. Michael White
AmericanC enter of OrientalR esearch( ACOR) SeymourG itin Carol L. Meyers
P.O . Box 2470, JebelA mman, Amman, Jordan. StephenG oranson S. Thomas Parker
PierreB ikai,D irector
LawrenceT . Geraty,V ice President AdvertisingC: orrespondences hould be addressedt o Dennis
RogerS . Boraas,S ecretary Fordo r SarahF oster,S cholarsP ress,P .O.B ox 15399,A tlanta,
RandolphB .O ld, Treasurer GA 30333-0,399( telephone:[phone];f ax:4 04-636-8301).
Biblical Archaeologisti s not responsiblef ore rrorsi n copy pre-
CyprusA mericanA rchaeologicalR esearchI nstitute (CAARI) paredb y the advertiserT. he editor reservest he rightt o refuse
11A ndreasD himitriou Street, Nicosia 136,C yprus. any ad. Ads for the sale of antiquities will not be accepted.
StuartS winy,D irector
GiraudF oster,P resident EditorialC orrespondenceA: rticle proposals,m anuscriptsa nd
LydieS hufro,V ice President editorial correspondences hould be sent to Biblical Archae-
Ellen Herscher,S ecretary ologist, P.O.B oxH .M., Duke Station, Durham,N C 27706.
AndrewO liver,J r.,T reasurer Unsolicited manuscriptsm ust be accompaniedb y a self-
addressed,s tampede nvelope.F oreignc ontributorss hould
ASORA ncient ManuscriptsC ommittee furnish internationalr eplyc oupons.
JamesC . VanderKamC, hairman
Departmento f Theology Manuscriptsm ust conformt o the formatu sed in Biblical
Universityo f Notre Dame Archaeologist,w ith full bibliographicr eferencesa nda minimum
Notre Dame, IN 46556 of endnotes. See recent issues fore xampleso f the propers tyle.
Manuscriptsm ust also include appropriateil lustrationsa nd
legends.A uthorsa re responsiblef or obtainingp ermissiont o
DamascusC ommittee use illustrations.
Michael J.F uller,C hairman
AnthropologyD epartment Composition by LiberatedT ypes,L td.,D urham,N C.
St. LouisC ommunity College Printedb y PBMG raphics,I nc., Raleigh,N C.
3400 PershallR oad
St. Louis,M O 63135 Publisher:S cholarsP ress
BiblicaAl rchaeologist
Perspectiveso n the Ancient Worldf rom Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean Volume 55 Number 3
A Publication of the American Schools of Oriental Research September 1992
Bronze Age MediterraneanI sland Cultures and the Ancient 112
NearE ast,P art2
A. Bernard Knapp
In the conclusion of a two-parta rticle on factorst hat led to the colo-
nization of the Mediterraneani slands, developments in the Aegean are
roundedo ut with a brief look at the Neo-Palatial period, an overview of
the Middle-LateB ronzeA ge on Thera, and an examination of the Post-
.... .. , .. . . .:... : ,.:,,., Palatialp eriod, when Minoan power and influence in the Aegean finally
disappearedO. ther areass tudied extensively include the island of Rhodes
......... ....... during the BronzeA ge, the association of Rhodes with the Ahhiyawa,
.. .- ... . . . . the role playedb y the trade in metals during the BronzeA ge, and the
elusive peoples known as the Shardanu.
The SamariaIv oriesM, arzeaha ndB iblicall bxts 130
. . .. .j ,~f.. ... , :.. :. .? ,: ...., Eleanor Ferris Beach
Among the best known Iron Age remains from Israelite territory are
the ivory carvings excavatedf rom Samaria.T hese carvings have been
described as the symbolic backdropf or the marzeah, an association for
periodic religious celebrations that is mentioned several times in the
Bible. These carvingsh ave never been used as iconographicr esources
Page 112 for interpretingt he marzeah or for explaining biblical passages that
might have been influenced by them, however.S ome of Samaria'sb adly
damagede xamples may have been meaningful religious symbols and
not just decorations.
?,
I, Archaeological Coveragei n Recent One-Volume 141
Bible Dictionaries
L;...- Victor H. Matthews and James C. Moyer
I.~. One-volumeB ible dictionaries are big sellers, with total sales estimated
-r,
at nearly 250,000 each year.I n a follow-upt o their 1985 article, "TheU se
1
tA~II 3YIC~ ~~- ? Ir and Abuse of Archaeology in Current One-VolumeB ible Dictionaries"
(Biblical Archaeologist 48: 222-37), which evaluatedm ore than 20 such
ii': dictionaries from the perspectiveo f their archaeologicalc overage,t he
authors examine eight new or revised one-volumeB ible dictionaries
1~ that have since appeared.S hould any of these dictionaries replace the
?i ;F Harper'sB ible Dictionary and the New Bible Dictionary, the top rated
one-volume Bible dictionaries in 1985?
'?- Geographic Information Systems: Archaeology's Latest 'Ibol 162
5 O Glen L. Peterman
Forn early a decade archaeologistsa nd cultural resource management
(CRM)s pecialists have been using the GeographicI nformation System
Page 130 (GIS)a nd related technologies to answer spatially-linkeda rchaeological
questions and to manage cultural resource data. At the heart of the GIS
approachi s the principle that any information about the earth'sc harac-
teristics or spatial resources- such as water, soil, vegetation and land-
form- can be digitally recordeda nd quantitatively analyzed. Here, the
author shows how the TransjordanG IS MappingP roject (STGMPi)s
using this new tool.
Introducingt he Authors 110
In Memoriam:K ennethW ayneR ussell 111
Arti-FACTSN: ews, Notes, and Reportsf rom the Institutes 152
Book Reviews 153
On the cover: GeographicI nformation Systems (GIS)i maging of the KerakP lateau and
eastern Dead Sea, South-CentralJ ordan.P hoto by Glen L. Peterman.
the Authors
Introducing
Glen L. Peterman is a graduates tudent in Near Eastern
Studies at the University of Arizona. He received his
bachelor's degree from Hope College and his master's
degrees from Drew University and the University of
Arizona. He has participated in fieldwork in Jordan,a t IG len L. Peterman
Khirbet Iskander,T ell el-Hayyat,A bu en-Ni aj, the Wadi
el-Yabisa, nd'Iraqe d-Dubb,a nd is currently planning sur-
vey work in the Wadia l-Heidana s phase IV of the Trans-
jordanG IS MappingP roject (STGMP).
A. BernardK nappi s Australian ResearchF ellow in Cyp-
riot Archaeologyi n the School of History,P hilosophya nd
Politics at Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia.
Dr. Knapp has excavated in Cyprus, Israel, Jordana nd
England, and is director of the Sydney-CyprusS urvey
Project. He received his Ph.D. in MediterraneanA rchae-
ology from the University of California,B erkeley.H e has A. BernardK napp
published more than 60 paperso n the archaeology,p oliti-
cal economy and social history of the Mediterraneana nd
ancient western Asia, particularly concerning Cyprus.
He is coeditor, with John F Cherry, of the Journal of
MediterraneanA rchaeology,a nd General Editoro f a new
series, Monographsi n MediterraneanA rchaeology. His
latest book, Archaeology,A nnales and Ethnohistory (an
edited volume) has just been published by Cambridge
University Press.
Ellie Beach is assistant professoro f religion at Gustavus
Adolphus College (Minnesota),w here she teaches bible
Ellie Beach
and women's studies. Her graduate work in Old Testa-
ment (Ph.D.,C laremont GraduateS chool) has been aug-
mented by severals easons in the field (Zeror1 966, Gezer
1973, Lahav 1986-87) pursuing her special interest in
relating archaeologya nd iconographyt o textual studies.
Currently serving as Book Review Editor for Biblical
Archaeologist, James C. Moyer is Professoro f Religious
Studies and Head of the Department of Religious Studies
at Southwest Missouri State University. Dr. Moyer has
excavated at Gezer, Raddana and The City of David. His
publications include several articles for Biblical Archae-
ologist and a coedited book, with William W. Hallo and
I
Leo G. Perdue, Scripture in Context II: More Essays on James C. Moyer
the Comparative Method (Eisenbrauns 1983).
Victor H. Matthews is Professor of Religious Studies at
Southwest Missouri State University. He has published
several articles in Biblical Archaeologist. His most re-
cent book, Old Testament Parallels: Stories and Laws
from the Ancient Near East, which was cowritten with
Don C. Benjamin of Rice University, is reviewed in this
issue of Biblical Archaeologist. Dr. Matthews is also the
editor of the ASOR Newsletter.
110 Biblical Archaeologist, September 1992 * VictorH . Matthews
KennethW ayneR ussell
In Memoriam
Kenneth Wayne Russell
On May 10, 1992, at the age of 41, Kenneth WayneR ussell died
unexpectedly after a short illness at King Hussein Medical
Center in Amman, Jordan.A t the time of his death, Ken was
entering an exciting new phase in his career as director of the
PetraC hurch Project.
In many ways, Kenneth Russell representedt he best of the
C
nHeawsh geemneitrea Ktioinng odfo amr ochf aJeoorldoagnis.K tse cno enadruncetdin hgis r Bes.Aea. rinch h iinst othrey EC1
and anthropologyf rom California State University (Sonoma), ICo: -
and his M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in anthropologyf rom the Uni- '3
versity of Utah in Salt Lake City. His interests included be- I>
havioral ecology, ethnoarchaeology,e cology and energetics of 0
pastorala nd cereal food production, the evolution of complex
societies, historic archaeologyo f the Near East and the western
United States, Roman-ByzantineP alestine and the Province of A.D. 363, BASOR 238: 47-64; The Earthquake Chronology
Arabia,a s well as archaeoseismology. of Palestine and Northwest Arabia from the 2nd through the
Kenb eganh is careeri n field archaeologya ndp ublication in Mid-8th Century A.D., BASOR2 60: 37-59) are sure to become
the world of Cultural Resource Management (CRM),w ith his oft-consulted references.K en remained somewhat perplexedb y
participationi n the salvagee xcavationo f Cuppyc ave and rock- the Levantinea rchaeologicalc ommunity's general indifference
shelter in Modoc County, California, in 1972. He was eventu- to seismic events in an areat hat he describeda s "oneo f the most
ally involved in more than 35 regional projects in the western obvious and active fault systems in the world."A s a long-time
U.S., as field directora nd as author of final reports.T his experi- resident of California,h e came to believe that geophysical pro-
ence led in 1988 to an assistant professorshipi n anthropology cesses would eventually vindicate his views, and benign igno-
at WeberS tate College in Ogden, Utah. He also served as the rance of earthquakes in the archaeological record would no
Director of the Archaeological Technician Program,i n which longer be the norm.
he oversaw the education and training of young scholars in In addition to Templeo f Hercules, Vol.I : The Excavations,
management and preservationo f cultural resources. he leaves a number of unfinished manuscripts that ACOR and
His final contribution to this field was as the ProjectC oor- his coauthors will bring to conclusion. These include a revised
dinator/Consultant to the ACOR-USAIDC ultural Resource Nabatean ceramic chronology titled Nabatean Household
Management Program,i n which he planned and coordinated Excavationsi n the "RoseR ed City";H ellenistic throughB yzan-
the stabilization, restoration and development of archaeologi- tine Occupations at Petra;T he Bidul Bedouin of Petra:S tudies
cal parks at Aqaba (Islamic Ayla), and on the Amman Citadel in the Ethnoarchaeology of a Pastoral-AgriculturalP eople in
(Jabael l-Qalaca).T he publication of Templeo f Hercules, Vol.I : the Near East (with Steve Simms); and others.
The Excavations, coauthored by Dr. Mohammed Najjar,w as For his friends and colleagues at ACOR and elsewhere,
nearing completion at the time of his death. Ken'sd eath at the prime of his scholarly career is more than a
Ken'si nvolvement in the archaeology of Jordanb egan in tragedy.H e passed away as he was about to undertake a major
1973 with his participation in a magnetometer and resistivity excavation project in Petra, at a church of major significance.
surveya t Petra,a nd continued for three additionals easons as an Ken came to believe that the remains he discovered in 1990
excavation supervisor for the University of Utah's American might be those of the fourth century cathedralo f the episcopal
Expedition to Petra (AEP).T hose summers in Jordanp rovedt o see of Third Palestine.A s this piece appears,e xcavationsf unded
be pivotal for his career and his love for Petra.H e returned to by USAID are continuing to bring this important monument
Petrai n 1986,a s a LeakeyF oundationF ellowt o initiate the Petra to light.
EthnoarchaeologyP roject,a nd again in 1990 to initiate excava- Ken always will be remembered for his intellectual vigor,
tions at the TurI mdair ockshelter as a National Endowmentf or and for the zest and energy he brought to his work. He was an
the Humanities (NEH) Fellow. Both projects centered on the animated lecturer and teacher who brought the sandstone
transition between forager and food production strategies as monuments of Petra to life for the scholar and traveler alike.
well as the ethnographyo f the Bidul Bedouin, the modern in- On a personal note, we at ACOR will also remember Ken as
habitants of Petraw ho adoptedh im as one of their own. mentor and confidant;a friend who refused to accept injustice,
The publication record that Ken leaves is impressive, not the mundane and banal, and who expected the best of himself
only for its breadth of subject material, but also for its impor- and others. Those who knew him well will always cherish his
tance to anthropologicalm ethod and theory. After Eden: The vitality and enthusiasm for life and his passion for revealingt he
Behavioral Ecology of Early Food Productioni n the Near East present and past lives of the "RoseR ed City."I t is indeed fitting
and North Africa (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, that Ken's final resting place, overlooking Petra from Umm
1988) is now standardr eadingf or students of cultural ecology. Sayhun, was chosen by, and given to him, by his Bidul family.
Likewise his articles on seismicity (The Earthquakeo f May 19, Glen L. Peterman
Biblical Archaeologist, September 1992 111
(EdTihosrist h'e snote onclsio
41L1
4i' I
:m.--- .-
Aftr
k?
The "WestC ourt"s een in the foregroundi s The Neo-Palatial Period
tBreahvienrdse thdba yt itsh teh rea Wiseeds t" WPrioncge( usspiopneraf lWl ooary r."e- Bronze Age About 1700B .C.E., an earthquake(o r
stored),w hich contained what are believed series of quakes)d estroyed Crete's
to be several shrines or sanctuaries, as well first palaces. During the Neo-Palatial
Mediterranean
as rows of storage" magazines."B eyond the period that followed, these palaces
West Wingi s the Central Court, where vari-
ous activities-like bull-leaping- would were elaborately reconstructed:t he
have taken place, and finally the East Wing, Island magnificent frescos widely recog-
which probably served as the domestic quar- nized as an important hallmark of
ter of the palace. The palace of Knossos,l ike
most Minoan palaces, was enclosed by an Minoan civilization adornedt he new
Cultures and
extensive residential area. The palaces stood palace walls. Fine pottery painted
at the apex of a settlement hierarchyt hat in- with marine and floral designs reveal
cluded "countryh ouses,"s maller towns, ports,
farmsteads and "peaks anctuaries."K nossos the Ancient a specialized level of craftsmanship;
was the largest and grandest of the palaces, a variety of other products- jewelry,
not just in terms of size (about 75 hectares) engravedg ems, bronze items and
but also in the quantity of its administrative Near East,
paraphernalia( LinearA and LinearB docu- ivory figurines-indicate unprece-
ments and sealings) and in the quality of its dented wealth. Self-sufficient in food
ptuorttee. Irty r,p eaminatiinnsg u, noctheretra fiinne, h aorwtse avnerd, warhcehtihteerc - Part 2 and most basic resources (except
Knossos ever exercisedp olitical or economic metals), Minoan Crete reached the
control over the rest of Crete.P hoto courtesy apex of prosperityb y about 1600 B.C.E.
of EkdotikeA thenon S.A., Athens. byA.B ernardK napp as a result of intensified agricultural
112 Biblical Archaeologist, September 1992
(olive and grape)a nd textile produc- (Manning 1992).Y et even state con- This latter suggestion must be ques-
tion (fori nternal consumption as trolled trade does not preclude mer- tioned, because the sort of "cultural
well as for export).W ide rangingt rade chants or mariners dealing in other imperialism"i mplied by the pres-
contacts funneled luxury items and forms of trade and bartert o their own ence of Minoan goods and influence
other goods into the economy. advantage( Wiener 1987: 263-64). overseas does not necessarily imply
In most cases, the palaces were Although specifically Minoan goods political or even economic domina-
enclosed by extensive residential (especially pottery) are thin on the tion in that place. Certain pottery
areas and served as regional centers ground in Cyprus, the Levanta nd styles (especially the Late Minoan IB
for the surroundingt erritories. On Egypt,d ocumentary and pictorial "Marine"st yle) once regardeda s the
another level, the palaces stood at evidence for the KeftiulKaptarus ug- sole products of Knossos, and spread
the summit of a settlement hierar- gests that this trade was much more widely throughout the island and
chy that included "countryh ouses" extensive than the material remains abroad,a re now thought also to have
(second-orderr egional administra- alone indicate. been made elsewhere in Crete, if not
tive centers?),s maller towns, farm- Extensive finds of Minoan pot- overseas.A t the moment, the issue of
steads and other sites that fulfilled tery, or other indications of Minoan Minoan colonies continues to spark
specific functions (fore xample, ports, cultural influence (in architecture, new lines of research and to fuel de-
"peak"s anctuaries for religious ob- wall-paintings," double-axem" otifs, bates, but there is no way to settle it
servances- Bennet 1988;P eatfield "conicalc ups")i n the Cyclades and on one way or another.
1990).K nossos was preeminent a chain of islands stretching toward Thera. Even if the full implications
among the Neo-Palatial centers in Anatolia (KarpathosR, hodes, Kos) of Minoan cultural contacts overseas
terms of its overall size (about 75 have led to suggestions of Minoan remain uncertain, nowhere are they
hectares?),q uantity of administrative settlement, or even of Minoan colo- so apparenta s at the site of Akrotiri
paraphernaliaa nd quality of pottery, nies, seen as part of an extensive, on Thera, a veritable Bronze Age
painting and architecture (Hood and Knossos-controlled, island empire Pompeii of the Aegean. Excavations
Taylor 1984;B ennet 1990).H owever, (later termed the "MinoanT halasso- at Akrotiri have revealedc opious
none of these factors demonstrates cracy"b y Thucydides- HH gg and amounts of Minoan pottery, and
unequivocally that Knossos exer- Marinatos 1984; Wiener 1990, 1991). "Minoanizing"f eatures and iconog-
cised political or economic control
over the rest of the island. On the
contrary,t he evidence of seals and
sealings from this period suggests
distinct administrative districts
(Weingarten1 988;B ennet 1990).
Even if the economic basis of
the palaces and "countryh ouses"l ay
in land and agriculture-pastoralism,
centralized (palatial)c ontrol over
foreign trade would have provided
much of the extraordinaryw ealth and
prestige items aroundw hich politi-
cal and economic power revolved
Dated to the fifteenth century B.C.E.,t he
"MarseilleE wer"i s one of the most elegant
and best known Late Minoan IB "Marine"
style vases. Along with the magnificent fres-
coes that adorned Cretanp alace walls during
its "Neo-Palatialp"e riod, fine painted pottery
with floral or marine motifs-such as the
Marseille the high level of spe-
cializationE twheart- h-sahdo bwese n reached by that
time. Jewelrye, ngravedg ems, metal items and
ivoryf igurinesr eveal the same sort of unprece-
dented wealth, at least partially the result of
wide-rangingt rade contacts that typified the
"InternationalE ra"o f the Late BronzeA ge in
the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean.P hoto
courtesy of the MusdeB orley,M arseille.
Biblical Archaeologist, September 1992 113
rC
"~t~_~2S~
-?- raphyi n pottery, frescos, spindle took on urban characteristics simi-
whorls, lamps and other items lar to those of the dominant Minoan
~s'"C':4?i f1~ I~? (Doumas 1987;v arious papers in centers of Neo-Palatial Crete. Akro-
i!ii:i:r; -~:(1?:~~:(::: : Hardy,D oumas and others 1990). tiri's size alone is exceptional within
iQ, ~~sa!l,~, : ??~: '::: :::lr: When the Minoans became a major the Middle/LateB ronze Age Cycla-
-:::::I': ?;::'~? political and economic force in the des: its estimated 20 hectares made it
:.:-:~ ::::::r:: :r:::: .-:::: :.
?:.?e ::: I-: ?. : :?? .. Aegean during the early second mil- 10-20 times largert han contempo-
':: ?:::I i:
;i:l::: : ?i " : ~~1 rrI I lennium B.C.E., it is likely that pres- rary sites on the Cycladic islands of
.J tige or power accrued simply from Kea and Melos, and almost one-third
i,?":*r,II.?R r,: hl possessing Minoan products, or from the size of the contemporary settle-
~sl-a ~? adopting certain aspects of Minoan ment at Knossos (Davis and Cherry
r
li ii ? religion. If nothing else, such finds 1990: 191).P roximity between Crete
-r ?-? ?'?~ reflect prehistoric socio-economic and Thera must have played some
,:i
r'* relationships between neighboring role in these developments, but did
n~h -Y-~8 YYI-~I
r~c islands (fore xample, marriageo r not preclude Thera'ss elf-determina-
~iYh~ I ~.jr~ L? .~.~ct ~?~?~cl::;: _C~:~?:: r tradingp artners;p restige goods ex- tion: Akrotiri'sm ultistoried archi-
,~, , change- Cherry 1987: 24); the long- tecture is unique, and its pottery and
11 'I?i~, "~i~t2i i~?: term maintenance of such links other fine arts represent a high Cy-
would have ensured access to various cladic standard.W ithin the Cyclades,
;7 J resources in times of shortage and Thera'sm aterial refinement stands
mx?:s? ?;--? ; :~L~-
-~??: -?? :~3*~1 r. ,, may be regardeda s one means of out; there is some evidence of rural
v~ s?: -~aP Lw~ C~GC~; I c ;4I ~ j*-, k T "~L~~ L adaptingt o the inherent risks of settlements on the island, with a
, I-~U?~rL? ~IFr' 'P?;?e *c ?E ~L~ ?~ IC~ .~ ~Yu *- -"t ;.*I1I 1-jr r island life. quality and range of artifactual and
About the same time the new architectural sophistication equiva-
The site of Akrotirio n Therai s the Bronze palaces were (re)builto n Crete, Akro- lent to that known from Akrotiri.
Age Mediterranean'se quivalent of Pompeii:
this strikingp hotographr evealsc lear evidence tiri's "townh ouses"a lso underwent Unlike other Cycladic islands,
for a major volcanic eruptiond uring the Late reconstructiono n a granders cale. The where evidence of a highly nucleat-
Minoan IA period, one of the most dramatic material evidence of this period of ed settlement pattern (i.e. with one
eruptions that has occurredo n earth since
the last ice age. The absolute calendar date grandeuro n Thera has been uniquely predominant center) has been discov-
for the eruptioni s still a matter of intense de- preservedb y a violent volcanic erup- ered, Thera shows signs of dispersed
bate: on its resolution hinges the acceptance tion that occurrede arly in the Neo- settlement- farmsteads, villages,
of a high or low chronology,w hich has rami-
fications for the chronologyn ot only of the Palatial period, towardt he end of perhaps even "countryh ouses" more
Mediterraneanw orld, but for the cultures of what Aegean prehistorians call the reminiscent of contemporaryM inoan
ancient western Asia and Egypt.T he massive Late Minoan (LM)I A period. The ab- Crete (Davis and Cherry 1990: 192).
destruction suffered by the town of Santorini
buried it in up to 30 meters of volcanic ash solute calendard ate for the eruption, (The centralized palatial system on
and debris, as shown. The entire island, if not and thus the range of time included Crete, however,i s unlikely to have
the southernA egean and Crete,w as affected, in the LM IA period, is still intensely promoted independent rural settle-
and shipping and trade must have been dis-
ruptedf or some time. Froma photograph debated (noted in part 1). ment, which may have been possible
taken by James V Luce, author of Lost In its final two phases of occu- on Thera.)I n Minoan terms, Akrotiri,
Atlantis (1969). pation, the settlement at Akrotiri with a maritime location ideally
The site of Akrotirio n Thera,w ith a maritime
location well suited to trade and communica-
tions within the Aegean, shows several signs
of a centralized bureaucracyI. n addition to
the knowledge of writing, there is good evi-
dence for a standardizedm easuring system,
as indicated by this series of graduatedl ead
weights excavateda t Akrotiri;g raduatedv olu-
metric measures of capacity in pottery vessels
have also been proposed.A standardizedm ea-
suring system suggests, among other things,
that local Theranp roducers,a dministrators
and merchants could have helped to regulate
commercial exchanges within the Cyclades,
or in the wider Aegean world. Photo courtesy
of Anna Michailidou, Hellenic Research
Foundation,A thens.
114 Biblical Archaeologist, September 1992
situated for inter-Aegeanc ommuni- the Cyclades is likely. Such a system
cations, would have representedt he would have facilitated interregional
headquarterso f a centralized bureau- communications and exchange. An ndrwte
cracy.A lthough there is evidence of a Sailing ships (like one depicted
measuring system and the knowledge on the "MiniatureF resco"f rom
of writing (in the form of potmarks) Thera) also helped regularize intra-
at Akrotiri,t here is as yet no evidence Aegean trade and made possible an
of a Minoan-typem ini-palace or its increased movement of local, surplus
extensive administrativep arapher- and luxury goods, including the bulk ZZr
nalia. Still, the hurrieda bandonment exchange of metals. Standardized
of the site in the face of a volcanic measures andp roducts( oxhidei ngots,
eruption increases the possibility "stirrup"ja rs, storagej ars)w ere in-
that the excavatorsm ay find an ad- trinsic to long-distance commercial
ministrative archive, which would transactions,a nd so reflect increasing
offer important new clues to the demand from an interregional trade
"Tiscover
Theran economy. Even if suggestions network. Akrotiri'se conomic afflu-
of a hierarchical settlement system ence must have derived chiefly from
and centralized administration on the maritime tradinga ctivities of its
/3ibical
Thera- based on the Minoan model - merchants or rulers. As in Crete, the
provet o be valid, it is unnecessary to incentive came from a desire to ob-
presume that this reflects the exten- tain certain symbolically-charged &Irchaeologist
sion to Thera of Minoan settlement, prestige goods (in the Theran case,
security, or control. often of Minoan origin or style) in Eachy earm anyn ew discoveriaerse
Akrotiri is distinct in many ways order to concentrate and legitimize madet hate nricho uru nderstandionfg
from Crete and the remainder of the power,a nd from the ability of a small ther ootso f Westertnr aditionS.i nceit
Cyclades. Yet in economic terms, it elite groupt o control and support a firstr eportetdh ed iscoveroyf theD ead
served as an important maritime labor force that producedf inished SeaS crollsin 1947,B iblicalArchaeolo-
center for contacts and trade within goods for trade (Manning 1992). gist has led the way with fascinating
the Aegean;i ts material remains and The cataclysmic destruction reportosf thel atesfti eldw ork.P ub-
frescos suggest that Akrotiri'sr esi- sufferedb y the town of Akrotiri l5i5shthey dqe aurao rft teirmlyBe,lA y,c i sh baellgeinngniinnaggir t tsi cles.
dents or merchants had direct links (towardt he end of LMIA)b uried it in
with the interregional trade and sup- up to 30 meters of volcanic ash and
ply system in the eastern Mediter- debris. Thera itself was devastated, To placey our subscriptionc,o mplete
this forma nd returnit to Scholars
ranean.A graduateds eries of disk and there is little doubt that the
weights has been found at Akrotiri, entire Aegean area-especially the PressP, O. Box 15399,A tlantaG, A
30333-0399.I ndividuaolr dersm ust
and graduatedv olumetric measures southern Aegean and Crete- was be prepaidb y checko r money order
of capacity in pottery vessels (simi- somehow affectedb y ash fallout, if drawno n a UnitedS tatesb anko r by
lar to fractional values proposedf or not tidal waves. Ships at sea may VISAo r MasterCardF.o rf asters ervice
Minoan LinearA signs) have been have been batteredb ut, because tidal with MasterCarodr VISA,c all( 404)
postulated (Katsa-Tomar1a9 90; wavesb uild up to their greatesth eight 636-475ZF oreignsu bscriberasd d $5
Michailidou 1990).B oth factors indi- and velocity when they encounter forp ostageF. ora samplei ssue,s end $3.
cate- already during the Middle shallow water, ships in port would
Bronze Age-a standardized measur- have been destroyedu tterly. As a re- O $35 individuals O $45 institutions
ing system, and suggest that local sult, shipping and tradingw ithin the S Checko r money-ordeern closed
Theran producers, administrators Aegean region must have been cur- O MasterCard C Visa
and merchants regulated commer- tailed, and some scholars argue that
Cardn umber
cial exchanges within the Cyclades. this (hypothetical)s eries of related
On Crete, units of measure for vari- events must have broken Minoan Expiratiodna te
ous commodities are implied by the control over Aegean seas.
Name
Minoan Linear A writing system. If It must be cautioned that a natu-
these conceptual similarities in Mi- ral event like a volcanic eruption (and Address
noan and Theran calculating methods its most devastatinge ffects) occurs
are taken at face value, a direct link- within a very short period of time.
or even a common system of weights If a series of calamities or a major Country
and measures -between Crete and historical event like the (presumed)
Biblical Archaeologist, September 1992 115
destruction of the Minoan fleet (and The Collapse of Minoan Power: as at least a century later), the grand
thus the collapse of Minoan mari- The Post-PalatialP eriodo n Crete palace at Knossos was destroyedb y
time power)a re attributed to the Nearly all excavatedM inoan sites - fire, which clearly diminished Knos-
same natural cause, the associated with the possible exception of Knos- sian influence over the island as a
archaeological levels - from which sos- show evidence of damage,d e- whole. Regional Minoan cultures
such arguments are generated - and struction or desertion towardt he end continued to flourish at sites such
the historical event must be shown of the LM IB period. Whether caused as Khania in the west, Kommos and
convincingly to belong to precisely by human or natural agents, these Hagia Triadao n the south coast, and
the same date (Davis and Cherry destructions were followed eventual- Palaikastroi n the east; but palatial
1990: 196-98). Our current level of ly by extensive rebuilding in a style life on Crete - and Minoan hegemony
understanding, measuring and coor- hardly less elaboratet han that of the in the Aegean- clearly had come to
dinating the occurrenceo f prehistoric palatial era. Even if Knossos was not an end.
events makes this a Herculean task. destroyed,i t too was remodeled at Because this political and eco-
However,a rchaeologists and this time in the same manner. nomic collapse, and the subsequent
physical scientists now agree that Settlement all over Crete con- cultural transformations,o ccurred
stratifiedf inds of Theran pumice and tracted during the subsequent, LM II at a time when Minoan power-in
tephra (volcanic substances) at sever- period, and henceforth Knossos was archaeological terms - seemed at its
al sites in the south and east Aegean the only functioning palatial center. peak, it is one of the enduring enig-
belong to a relative sequence late in Other sites, furthermore,e mulated mas in Mediterraneanp rehistoric
the LM IA pottery phase (Renfrewi,n developmentsa t Knossos.A t the same archaeology.O ver the past 50 years,
Hardy,w ith Renfrew 1990: 11, 242). time, there was limited Mycenaean the LM IB destructions and the fol-
Yet if the causes of the destruction (i.e. Greek mainland) influence on lowing Minoan collapse have been
levels at Akrotiri and at other sites Crete: "warriorsw" ere buried with attributed to such singular, exclusive
in the Aegean cannot be attributed extensive weaponry (in the Mycenae- factors as the Theran eruption, earth-
strictly to the same natural event (as an fashion);u nprecedentedm ilitary quakes and fires, a Mycenaean inva-
just argued),t he eruption of Thera themes were depicted in the frescos sion, or an internal revolution. The
cannot be held responsible for the that adornedt he rebuilt palace at collapse of dominant early states at
collapse of Minoan civilization. And Knossos; pottery reminiscent of My- their peak is not uncommon, how-
even if earthquakesc onnected with cenaean styles was produced;a nd the ever, and is demonstrated by such
the eruption caused some localized LinearB script was used (to write the examples as that of Mesopotamia
destructions, most scholars now con- Mycenaean Greek dialect), which at during the Old Babylonian (Middle
cur that the series of catastropheso n least partially replacedL inearA . Bronze Age) or Neo-Assyrian (Iron
Crete, which seriously undermined Finally,a t some much disputed point Age) periods, or of Egypt during its
its preeminent position within the in time (once thought to be within New Kingdom (LateB ronzeA ge).
Aegean, occurredd uring the LM IB the first half of the fourteenth cen- The reasons marshaled to explain
(not the LM IA)p ottery phase. It is, tury B.C.Eb. ut now generally regarded collapse - spiraling costs of various
therefore,d oubly difficult to demon-
strate any association between the
eruption of Thera and the demise
of Minoan culture and political
domination.
Along with the city-states of lalysos and
Camiros, that at Lindos formed a major
Rhodian center during the Classical period.
During the EarlyB ronzeA ge, there was also
an important site at Lindos, on Rhodes'e ast
central coast. With the exception of Lindos,
and as was the case during the IronA ge and
later periods, sites were concentrated along
the more fertile northwest coastal plain. The
sparse settlement of the equally fertile north-
east coast perhapsr esulted from its lack of a
suitable harbor.T he Bay of Trianda,w here the
importantL ate BronzeA ge sites of Ialysos and
T7iandaw ere situated, provided a natural
harbor,a lbeit one that offeredl ittle shelter
from the northwest winds and rain. Photo
courtesy of ChristopherM ee.
116 Biblical Archaeologist, September 1992