Macmillan Dictionary of Anthropology

310 Pages·1986·45.23 MB·English

by  Charlotte Seymour-Smith (auth.)

MACMILLAN
DICTIONARY
OF
ANTHROPOLOGY
CHARLOTIE SEYMOUR .. SMITH
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ANTHROPOLOGY
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ANTHROPOLOGY
CHARLOTTE SEYMOUR-SMITH
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MACMILLAN
REFERENCE
BOOKS
©Macmillan Press Ltd, 1986
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of
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Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this
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claims for damages.
First published 1986 by
THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
London and Basingstoke
Associated companies in Auckland, Delhi, Dublin,
Gaborone, Hamburg, Harare, Hong Kong, Johannesburg,
Kuala Lumpur, Lagos, Manzini, Melbourne, Mexico City,
Nairobi, New York, Singapore, Tokyo.
Paperback first published 1987
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Seymour-Smith, Charlotte
Macmillan dictionary of anthropology
1. Anthropology-Dictionaries
I. Title
301'.03'21 GNU
ISBN 978-0-333-39334-5 ISBN 978-1-349-08037-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-08037-3
The paperback edition of this book is sold subject to the
condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be
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publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover
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subsequent purchaser.
Foreword
There are few fixed definitions in anthropology. Instead, ours is a discipline which advances
by constantly revising and interrogating current concepts and their use. This Dictionary is
intended to convey the critical. spirit of anthropological enquiry to students of social and
cultural anthropology and to the interested lay reader. Emphasis is placed on theoretical and
conceptual issues, as well as on the clarification of technical terms which sometimes confuse
the uninitiated. The aim of the Dictionary is thus to provide the reader with the basic
information necessary in order to understand and critically assess anthropological texts and
material, as well as to furnish a starting point for the student, who may wish to go further by
following up the references on any given topic.
Entries on individual anthropologists are brief and limited. Only those authors born
before 1920 are included-references to the works of younger scholars will be found under
the entries relating to the topics to which they have contributed. Similarly, for reasons of
space it is impossible to explore all the interdisciplinary ramifications of anthropology, and
the reader will not find coverage here of the fields of linguistics, physical anthropology,
archaeology and so on.
In order to use this book most fruitfully the reader is advised to follow up the cross
referencing, which is designed to counteract the necessarily fragmented dictionary format.
Finally, this is perhaps not a dictionary in the strictest sense of the term. Many entries
here are not 'definitive': they are designed instead to open up the debate.
CSS, June 1986
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of the following persons who made the
completion of this work possible: Shaie Selzer and Martin Seymour-Smith, who came up
with the idea of the book; John Hodgson, Penelope Allport and Ravi Mirchandani, for
editorial support at Macmillan Press; Felicity Edholm, for valuable suggestions and
revisions; and, finally, Hamilt6n Mencher, for generously providing word-processing
facilities in Metasistemas SA, Iquitos, Peru.
Contributors
I would also like to thank Maurice Bloch, Michael Chibnik, Britt Krause and Norman
Whitten who contributed a number of entries to the Dictionary.
How to use the Dictionary
Alphabetization
In entry headings in the text where more than one word forms part of the heading, the words
are alphabetized as if continuous up to the first mark of punctuation, then again after the
comma.
Cross-references
Cross-references are distinguished by the use of SMALL CAPITALS; large capitals appear in
cross-references where the entry is a proper name (e.g. LEVI-STRAUSS). In a cross-reference
to another entry within the Dictionary the word 'see' is printed in italics. Where the word
'see' is printed in roman type the reference is to another publication.
Cross-references are of two basic kinds. First, there are those 'cross-reference' entries that
direct the reader to where he can find the entry he is seeking; thus:
childhood. See AGE, ANTHROPOLOGY OF.
The other type of cross-reference is that within an article. Some cross-references will be
found at the end of short articles, or at the end of paragraphs, directing the reader to another
entry where further information relevant to the subject he is reading about may be found
(these may, as appropriate, embody such formulae as 'see' or 'see also'). Further cross
references will be found in running text to direct the reader to places where he can find
further information on the topic. However, cross-references are used selectively, so it is
always worth looking up a related term elsewhere in the Dictionary.
Bibliographical references
Throughout the text bibliographical references have been given with the name of the author/
editor and the date of publication. Readers should refer to the Bibliography beginning on
page 293.
The Bibliography is arranged in alphabetical order by author/editor, and chronologically
under the author's/editor's name. Where a work has been published originally in a language
other than English, the original date of publication and date of English translation have been
given, where known. In the case of specific references to chapters in a book with more than
one contributor, the reader will find a cross-reference within the Bibliography to the editor
of the publication concerned.
Abbreviations
For kinship terminology the reader is advised to consult the article abbreviations in kinship
on page 1. The abbreviation BP refers to dates 'before present'.
A
abbreviations in kinship. In order to express acculturation. This term has been used since
KINSHIP relations more economically in the 19th century to describe processes of
anthropological writing and tables, it is ACCOMMODATION and CHANGE in culture
common to use the following abbreviations: contact, but during the 1930s it came to be
used increasingly by US anthropologists
Fa or F Father interested in the study of cultural and social
MoorM Mother change and the problems of social disori
Si or Z Sister entation and cultural decline. They defined
Br orB Brother acculturation as 'those phenomena which
So or S Son result when groups of individuals having
Da orD Daughter different cultures come into first hand con
Sb Sibling tact, with subsequent changes in the original
Ne Nephew cultural patterns of both groups'. Starting
Ni Niece from a CULTURAL BASELINE of pre-contact
Pa Parent culture patterns, acculturation studies then
Ch Child attempted to describe and analyse the pro
HuorH Husband cess of change. In practice, they concen
WiorW Wife trated almost exclusively on contact between
Sp Spouse industrial societies and native populations,
La In-law emphasizing the one-way influence of the
Gf Grandfather former on the latter, and its implications for
Gm Grandmother APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY. They have accor
Gp Grandparent dingly been criticized for their open attitude
towards the DEVELOPMENT process and to
Thus, for example, 'father's sister's son's wards the culture of the dominant group and
daughter' may be abbreviated as FZSD or the changes arising in it as a result of new
FaSiSoDa. political, economic and social forms. Specific
points of research within the acculturation
ablineal. In kinship studies, synonymous perspective included the study of mecha
with COLLATERAL. nisms of change and resistance to change,
and the creation of typologies of results of
change: ASSIMILATION, reinterpretation,
aboriginal. Indigenous or pertaining to the
SYNCRETISM, REVITAZLIATION etc. More
original population of a given region. When
recent studies of change have tended to
capitalized, refers to Australian Aborigines.
move away from explanations in terms of
cultural pattern and towards the analysis of
abortion. See CONTRACEPTION AND ABOR social, economic and political structures of
TION. dominance or of ETHNIC interaction, and the
strategic use of cultural elements in contact
accommodation. A process or state of situations.
adjustment to a situation of conflict, where
overt strife is avoided and compensatory acephalous. Literally 'headless', referring to
advantages are gained by the parties or societies which do not possess centralized
groups involved. (See ACCULTURATION; political authority. The term is generally
CHANGE.) employed to refer to societies which within
1
2 achievement and ascription
an evolutionary scheme are classified as ween roles or statuses which are achieved
BANDS or TRIBES, and in which the political and those which are ascribed: social class,
system may be of the SEGMENTARY type, for example, is ascribed at birth but is
decentralized or 'multicentric' (also 'poly subject to change during a person's lifetime
centric'). An alternative term is 'stateless in accordance with achievements.
societies'. In such groups, the unity of the
society as a whole is given by the common achievement motivation. A configuration of
ethnic or cultural identity of its member personality traits linked to the entrepre
communities, but not by a centralized poli neurial role which it is argued will favour
tical system. (See POLITICAL ANTHRO economic DEVELOPMENT in populations
POLOGY.) where the achievement oriented personality
is common. Many anthropologists and socio
achievement and ascription. The distinction logists would argue that such a psychological
between achieved and ascribed ROLES or measure cannot be cited as a causal factor in
STATUSES is one which was developed by the social CHANGE, and would seek instead to
anthropologist LINTON, and refers to the establish what are the social and economic
criteria by which the individual is considered forces which are favouring or shaping the
to be eligible for a particular status or role in 'achieving personality'.
society. The ascribed role or status is one
which is assigned by virtue of factors outside action anthropology. See APPLIED ANTHRO
the individual's control such as sex, age, POLOGY.
kinship relationship, race etc. Linton (1936)
points out that this type of status or role is action theory. Under this term we may
predominant in traditional societies. The include studies of society generally, and
achieved role, on the other hand, depends those of political systems in particular, which
on individual effort or ability (in other focus on individual actors and their strate
words, it is a role for which one must gies within a given sociopolitical context.
compete), and Linton argues that this type Theoretical frameworks of action theory
of status or role is predominant in modern have included those focusing on TRANSAC
society and is consonant with democratic or TIONS, SYSTEMS ANALYSIS and GAME
egalitarian ideologies. A good example of an THEORY. Action theory in anthropology
achieved role in modern society is the locates the individual within the framework
occupational or professional role, which of social organization and then analyses
involves the exercise of effort and choice, as political action and interaction. Within
well as an element of competition, to occupy POLITICAL ANTHROPOLOGY, action theory is
a given position. However it is important to distinguished by its attention to political
recall that there is still a large area of processes and formations such as FACTIONS,
industrial society which is governed by role interest groups, and so on, and by its
or status ascription: we are, in modern fieldwork method, which concentrates on
society, allocated certain functions or posi face-to-face interactions within given socio
tions by virtue of being male or female, political contexts. In part, action theory was
young or old, black or white, and so on. a reaction to the tendency of STRUCTURAL
Similarly, there are roles which are com FUNCTIONALISM to reify political structures
peted for and achieved in traditional socie and concentrate on corporate groups and the
ties, as the study of political organization in moral/jural dimension of political systems.
these societies amply demonstrates. Like Action theory emphasizes dynamic modes of
social MOBILITY, the concept of achieved political behaviour such as strategy, decision
status or role is one which has a strong making and maximization. In the works of
ideological component: it corresponds to the Mair, FIRTH and LEACH the foundations for
egalitarian ideals of a 'democratic' society an action-oriented approach to anthropo
but not necessarily to the reality of social logy were already laid. During the 1950s and
relations, which continue to rely heavily on 1960s action theory was further developed
status and role ascription. In addition, it by Bailey, Barth, TURNER, Boissevain, A.P.
should be remembered that it is not always Cohen and others. Themes included the
possible to maintain a rigid distinction be_t~ study of political and economic change and
adaptive strategy 3
the structural principles ordering political or learned by individuals; instead, they may
action, and comparative/historical analysis. 'play' them in a variety of ways, comment
Thus Bailey (1969) developed a tool kit for upon them, innovate and switch from role to
the analysis of competitive political action, role.
while Boissevain (1974) suggested a classifi
adaptation. A concept which is used in
cation of noncorporate political action sets.
biological theories of genetic EVOLUTION to
Barth (1961), after developing a transac
refer to physiological or behavioural changes
tional model of political analysis, has moved
which result in increased chances of survival
on to explore the possibilities of combining
in a given environment. In biology, the term
action theory with other theoretical
has two distinct senses: individual responses
approaches in order to complete the study of
acting to maintain homeostasis, and evolu
the structural and symbolic as well as strate
tionary adaptation or change over
gic dimensions of social systems. Others
generations in the direction of increased
such as Turner have focused on the 'manipu
'fitness'. By extension, the term has been
lation of symbols' in political systems.
applied to human behaviour and to socio
Action theory has influenced the anthropo
cultural evolution. If the use of the concept
logical study of ETHNICITY as well as a broad
is not to be circular (traits which exist are
range of other areas where action-oriented
adaptive, adaptive traits are those which
approaches have been fruitfully incorpo
exist), then it must be linked to an inde
rated in combination with other methodo
pendent measure or theory of 'fitness'. (See
logical and theoretical approaches.
ADAPTIVE STRATEGY; CULTURAL ECO
A general criticism of action-oriented
LOGY.)
theories is that they tend to focus on
competitive intraclass behaviour while adaptive strategy. The concept of adaptive
neglecting power relations and conflict strategy refers to a plan of action carried out
between social classes. Also, they rely on over a specified time period by a specific
notions such as that of the maximizing group or aggregate of people to allow them
individual decision maker and the 'rational to adjust to or cope with internal or external
man', notions which have been criticized as constraints. Adaptive strategies may or may
ETHNOCENTRIC. Critics of action theories not be made explicit by an actor in a given
have claimed that by focusing on individuals social situation, but they are not ever
it is impossible to apprehend the nature of a conscious for all actors. Actors may give
political system or a power structure. Both contradictory statements about what they
action theorists themselves and critics of the are doing, planning, and thinking. The
approach have tried to overcome these construct 'adaptive strategy' is a generalized
problems and to generate new models which statement develop~d by disciplined
incorporate both individual and structural observers of human behaviour to understand
elements: thus A. Cohen in his work on repetitive and unique outcomes of social
ethnicity (1974) attempts to reconcile action action with careful attention to external and
theory and structuralism by stressing the internal constraints on such action.
dialectical relationship between power and Constraints themselves are forever being
symbolism, as does Turner in his theory imposed from outside a given group or
(1974) which interrelates the manipulation aggregate of people, and they are also the
of symbols and the struggle for power. inevitable consequence of the strategies
developed to attain a goal.
actor. A concept which has been An adaptive strategy such as a predatory
increasingly called upon in modern expansion of one group into the territory of
anthropology, both in the field of ACTION another is disruptive to the social relations of
THEORY, where the notion of the actor or another social grouping. It is impossible to
decision maker is crucial, and also in the study the adaptive strategies of any
modern study of ROLE. In the second field, particular social grouping without
the notion of the actor is important in the considering the various symmetrical and
sense that it suggests the distance which asymmetrical relationships between
exists between the person and the role he or groupings and between individuals and
she adopts. Roles are not passively accepted sub groupings. Accordingly, the concept of
4 adelphic polyandry
reciprocity is fundamental to the analysis of adelphic polyandry. Synonymous with
adaptive strategies. Because adaptive stra FRATERNAL POLYANDRY, a form of POLY
tegy analysis is oriented toward under ANDRY in which the co-husbands are
standing both continuity and change, it is an brothers. It may be regarded as an extreme
essential complement to the study of ecolo form of the tendency, present in many
gical patterns, economic growth and decline, societies, for some kind of extension of the
social structure, political process, or ideo MARRIAGE alliance to the husbands'
logical presentations. The concept of brothers or male kin: either in the form of
adaptive strategy allows us to view structure sexual licence or of rights to claim the widow
dynamically. Adaptive strategy analysis sees in marriage (see LEVIRATE). The extent to
humans as always coping with the structures which this and other forms of repeated
that they create, and continually altering in a alliance are practised in a given society may
systematic way that which they seek to be related to demographic and/or political
maintain. factors.
Through time certain adaptive strategies
become part of the world-view or ideology
adhesion. A term coined by TYLOR in a
of a given people, or group of people, as well
pioneering study of CROSS-CULTURAL
as being manifest in patterned social
COMPARISON. Adhesions, which would be
relationships vis-a-vis internal or external
called correlations in modern statistical
constraints. A given people, or members of
terminology, are traits which are con
a given society, may describe to the
sistently found together, indicating the
researcher a desirable and effective strategy
possibility of functional interrelations.
that cannot be maintained, initiated or
completed due to extant constraints and due
to lack of options. When studying adaptive adjudication. In the anthropology of LAw,
strategies, the researcher must understand we may distinguish between different modes
the availability of options and the of DISPUTE SETTLEMENT which are charac
consequence for environment, society and teristic of specific societies or types of
culture of selecting one option over another. society. Adjudication is the intervention, in
DECISION THEORY deals with this facet of a dispute or a case of violation of law, of a
strategy analysis by constructing sophisti third person (or other persons) vested with
cated cognitive maps that reflect the way by special authority within a formal legal
which options and constraints are weighed system. We may contrast MEDIATION, where
by actors in specific situations. the third party is not vested with legal
Alternative adaptive strategies may be authority and may be of high or low status in
deployed by different individuals and relation to the disputing parties, and NEGO
groupings within the same system. The TIATION where the disputing parties or their
concept of adaptive strategy does not imply representatives come to a direct agreement
success in a given social, ecological, without the intervention of a third party.
economic, political or ideological move Adjudication, or the formal legal mode of
ment. It simply allows one to develop a social control, is characteristic of societies
model from observed and analysed data so with considerable specialization of roles.
as to allow the investigator to condense According to WEBER, the development of
concepts developed at different levels of capitalist society implies and requires the
analysis and to introduce the notion of development of a system of legal rationality,
aggregate plans of reciprocating action including specialized legal institutions.
carried out over specified time periods vis-a
vis constraints and options. The concept is of
administration. See POLICY AND
value to the analysis of conflict and may treat
ANTHROPOLOGY.
conflict and social disruption as system
maintaining activities or system-changing
activities. One goal of adaptive strategy adolescence. In our society, a stage between
analysis is predictability of outcomes when the attainment of physical maturity
competition is a key to continuing (puberty} and adult status. It is not a
adaptation. recognized AGE GRADE in all societies, as in