Lumpy Skin Disease PDF
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Eeva S. M. Tuppurainen Shawn Babiuk · Eyal Klement Lumpy Skin Disease Lumpy Skin Disease Eeva S. M. Tuppurainen (cid:129) Shawn Babiuk (cid:129) Eyal Klement Lumpy Skin Disease EevaS.M.Tuppurainen ShawnBabiuk Aldershot,Hampshire,UK CanadianFoodInspectionAgency NationalCentreforForeignAnimalDisease Winnipeg,Manitoba,Canada UniversityofManitoba Winnipeg,Manitoba,Canada EyalKlement KoretSchoolofVeterinaryMedicine TheHebrewUniversity Rehovot,Israel ISBN978-3-319-92410-6 ISBN978-3-319-92411-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92411-3 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2018945542 #SpringerInternationalPublishingAG,partofSpringerNature2018 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpart of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionor informationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. 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Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Contents 1 IntroductiontoLumpySkinDisease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 GeneralDescriptionofLumpySkinDisease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3 EconomicImpactofLumpySkinDisease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3.1 DirectImpactofClinicalDisease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3.2 IndirectEconomicImpactofLSD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 4 GeographicDistributionofLumpySkinDisease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 5 CurrentLegislationandTradeRecommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 PartI LumpySkinDiseaseVirus 6 Taxonomy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 7 Morphology.. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. 25 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 8 Genome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 9 ReplicationinaHost. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 10 PropagationoftheVirusInVitro. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 11 PersistenceandStabilityoftheVirus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 12 Immunity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 v vi Contents 13 EpidemiologyandTransmission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 13.1 TransmissionModesofLSDV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 13.2 PotentialVectorsofLumpySkinDiseaseVirus. . . . . . . . . . . 54 13.3 DirectTransmissionofLumpySkinDisease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 13.4 TransmissionViaSubclinicallyInfectedCattle. . . . . . . . . . . . 56 13.5 SpreadofLumpySkinDisease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 13.6 Seasonality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 13.7 GeographicalRiskFactors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 13.8 RiskFactorsintheHerdLevel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 13.9 RiskFactorsintheAnimalLevel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 13.10 FurtherSuggestedStudies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 PartII EarlyDetectionofLumpySkinDisease,DiagnosticToolsand Treatment 14 ClinicalSigns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 15 SampleCollectionandTransport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 16 DiagnosticTools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 17 TreatmentofLumpySkinDisease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 PartIII ControlandEradication 18 VaccinesAgainstLSDandVaccinationStrategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 18.1 VaccinationStrategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 19 SlaughterofInfectedandIn-ContactAnimals. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. 95 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 20 AnimalMovementControlandQuarantine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 21 VectorSurveillanceandControl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 21.1 VectorSurveillance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 21.2 VectorControl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 22 DecontaminationandDisinfection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 23 ActiveandPassiveSurveillance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 1 Introduction to Lumpy Skin Disease Eeva S. M. Tuppurainen Lumpyskindisease(LSD)isahigh-impacttransboundarypoxdiseaseofcattleand Asian water buffalo caused by a lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV). The disease is categorizedonthelistofnotifiablediseasesbytheWorldOrganizationforAnimal Health (OIE) due to its capability of rapid transboundary spread and to cause substantialcattleproductionlosses.TheOIEsetsuprecommendationsfortheexport and trade of live cattle and their products from affected countries. Within the European Union (EU), notification, disease control, vaccination, cattle movements andtradewithinandbetweentheEUmemberstatesarestrictlyregulatedbydifferent directivesandimplementingdecisions. LumpyskindiseaseiswidelyspreadinAfricaandintheMiddleEast.In2013the first LSD outbreaks were reported in Turkey from where it swiftly spreads to the northern part of Cyprus, Southeast Europe and the northern Caucasus region. Currently, those countries neighbouring the affected areas in Europe and Asia are facingariskofincursionofLSDintotheirterritories. AnincursionofLSDintoapreviouslydisease-freecountrycausesseverelosses forallsectionsofthecattlefarmingindustry.Decreaseinmilkandmeatproduction, abortions,fertilityproblems,damagedskinsandhidesaswellasdeathorcullingof sick cattle comprise the direct losses. Furthermore, indirect losses follow the cattle movement and trade restrictions. Livelihoods of poor smallholders and backyard farmersaremostseverelyaffected,butsimilarlyincursionofLSDintoanintensive beefordairycattleproductionunitcausesextensiveeconomiclossestotheproducers aswellasenvironmentalissuesincaseatotalorevenmodifiedstamping-outpolicyis inplace. UsuallytheveryfirstsuspicionofLSDisraisedwhenseveralfebrileanimalswith highly characteristic skin nodules, eye discharge and enlarged lymph nodes are detected by cattle owners. Dairy cattle are daily monitored, but the virus may sometimes circulate for weeks in free-ranging beef cattle herds before detected, allowing plenty of time for vectors to become infected and spread the virus to naïvesusceptibleherdsintheregion. #SpringerInternationalPublishingAG,partofSpringerNature2018 1 E.S.M.Tuppurainenetal.,LumpySkinDisease, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92411-3_1 2 1 IntroductiontoLumpySkinDisease Withinthecurrentlyaffected regions, massvaccinationwithsufficientcoverage isfundamentalforhaltingthespreadofavector-borneLSDVsupportedbytheother control measures. To date, none of the affected countries has been able to perma- nentlyeradicatedisease,onceithasgotafootholdintheirterritories.However,the effectiveness of the total stamping-out measure is likely to vary depending on the region and cattle farming practices. In case outbreaks are detected in a very early stage, epidemiological unit sizes are small and cattle movements can be properly controlled, a total stamping-out measure would probably stop the spread of LSD withoutvaccination. Ideally,inafaceofanoutbreak,thevaccinationofthewholecattlepopulationin a country or zone should be carried out within the shortest possible time frame. Dependingonthelocalcattlefarmingpractices,terrain,roadsandavailablemeansof transport, vaccination campaigns are usually very time-consuming and laborious, stretching the veterinary services up to their limits. Despite of the challenges, the efficacy of a well-organized vaccination campaign, using effective vaccines, has beenrecentlydemonstratedbytheextremelysuccessfulcontrolofLSDinSoutheast Europe and the Western Balkan. However, the costs of mass vaccination are a substantial economic burden, considering the fact that in 2013–2017 the majority oftheaffectedcountrieshadtooperatewithlimitedfinancialresources. Before2012LSDwasalargelyneglectedcattlediseaseandraisedonlyalimited researchinterestoutsidetheendemicregions.ItwasbelievedthatLSDwasnotgoing to spread out from Africa or in case it would happen, the disease could be easily contained.Thus,LSDwasnotconsideredasadiseasewhichrequiredinvestmentin research.Thelackofgeneralinterestleadstolimitedscientificresearchonimmunity, epidemiology,transmission,vectors,viralcharacteristics,diagnostictools,veterinary treatments and prophylactic agents. Triggered by the recent spread of LSD, the situation has fundamentally changed, and the availability of funding has initiated novel research and international collaborations, producing much needed and long- overduescientificdataforimprovedcontrolofthedisease. The aim of this book is toprovide an overview on theessential aspects of LSD basedonthemostrecentresearchdata. 2 General Description of Lumpy Skin Disease Eeva S. M. Tuppurainen Lumpyskindisease(LSD)isendemicacrossmostoftheAfricancontinent,andsince 2012ithasspreadwidelywithintheMiddleEast,SoutheastEuropeandthenorthern Caucasus.Lumpyskindiseasevirus(LSDV)sharesthegenusCapripoxvirus(CaPV) within the family Poxviridae (Buller et al. 2005) with sheeppox virus (SPPV) and goatpoxvirus(GTPV). TheWorldOrganizationforAnimalHealth(OIE)providesrecommendationsfor theinternationaltradestandardsintheTerrestrialAnimalHealthCode,Infectionwith Lumpy Skin Disease Virus, Chap. 11.9, and for diagnostic assays and vaccines in LumpySkinDisease,Chap.2.4.13oftheManualofDiagnosticTestsandVaccines forTerrestrialAnimals.ThemostrecentversionoftheLSDchapterwasadoptedin May2017. EuropeanUnion(EU)regulatesthediseasenotification(82/894/EECof21December 1982),intra-communitytradeofliveanimalsandtheirproducts(90/425/EECof26June 1990),aswellascontrolanderadicationmeasuresappliedincaseofanoutbreakwithin theEUmemberstates(92/119/EECof17December1992). Infection with LSDV causes clinical signs in cattle and domestic (Asian) water buffalo. Although some wild ruminants are known to be susceptible, the role of wildlifeinthetransmissionofthediseaseisnotclear. Sudden appearance of fever and skin lesions in several animals in the herd is a characteristic finding for LSD. Sometimes infected animals develop only a few lumps, but in severe cases skin nodules may cover the entire body. Affected cattle showocularandnasaldischarge,andulcerativelesionsmaybedetectedintheoral, nasal and ocular mucous membranes. Typically, infected cattle show clearly enlarged subscapular and precrural lymph nodes. Swellings, caused by oedema, canbedetectedinthedewlapandlegs,causinglameness(Haig1957;Weiss1968). Secondary bacterial skin infections, mastitis and especially pneumonia can be so severethattheymayleadtodeathoreuthanasiaofaffectedanimals. AnincursionofLSDVtoapreviouslydisease-freecountryisusuallyassociated with either legal or illegal introduction of cattle, originating from affected region #SpringerInternationalPublishingAG,partofSpringerNature2018 3 E.S.M.Tuppurainenetal.,LumpySkinDisease, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92411-3_2 4 2 GeneralDescriptionofLumpySkinDisease (Jarullah2015;Inceetal.2016).Afterarrivalofclinicallyorsubclinicallyinfected animal(s), blood-feeding vectors (Weiss 1968; Kitching and Mellor 1986; Chihota etal.2001;Lubingaetal.2013;Tuppurainenetal.2013a,b)furtherdisseminatethe virus to naïve animals within their flying distance or when cattle comes to close contact with each other. Although there is no absolutely safe season for LSD, the outbreaksusuallyoccurinthespring,summerandautumnwhenthetemperatureand humidityareidealforbitingandblood-feedingvectors. Sofar,onlymechanicaltransmissionbyvectorshasbeendemonstrated.Further studies are, however, required to exclude the possibility of much more effective biologicalvectortransmissionmodes.Toalesserextent,transmissionmayoccurin theabsenceofvectorsbydirectorindirectcontactorviacontaminatedfeedorwater (Haig1957;Weiss1968).Inaddition,seminaltransmissionhasbeenexperimentally demonstrated(Annandaleetal.2013). Severity of the clinical disease depends on the virulence of the virus and the factors affecting the susceptibility of the host, such as immunity, age and breed of cattle. Natural resistance to infection, not associated with immunity, is believed to occurincattle(Weiss1968)althoughthisoldstatementneedstobeexperimentally re-evaluatedbyusingmodernhighlysensitivemoleculartests.Onlyhalfofexperi- mentallyinfectedcattlearelikelytodevelopgeneralizedskinlesions.Theremaining animalseithershowonlyalocalizedswellingattheinoculationsiteofthechallenge virus or no other clinical signs apart from a mild fever reaction (Weiss 1968; Tuppurainen et al. 2005; Osuagwuh et al. 2007; Annandale et al. 2010). Infected cattledonotremainasymptomaticcarriers.ImmunityagainstLSDVisbothhumoral and cell mediated. The levels of LSD-specific antibodies are highest following infectionanddecreaseovertime. LSDV is a very stable virus which survives well in the farm premises and surroundings. A total ban or efficient control of animal movements is often chal- lenginginaffectedregions.Todateithasnotbeenpossibletohaltthespreadofthe vector-borne LSD by culling of all infected and in-contact animals without using massvaccinations. In recently affected regions in Southeast Europe, large-scale immunization of cattlepopulationhasprovidedtobethemosteffectivetooltocontrolthespreadof the disease. Supporting measures such as movement controls, stamping-out, disin- fection and farm biosecurity measures are of high importance in combatting the spread.However,selectionofthemostfeasiblecontrolanderadicationpolicy,with orwithoutvaccination,variesbetweencountriesandregions,dependingonseveral factors and circumstances, such as the climate, the local farming practices and the epidemiologicalunitsize. Vaccines containing live attenuated LSDV are superior compared to sheeppox virus containing vaccines.To some degree, a cross protectionseemstobeinplace acrossallmembersofthegenusCapripoxvirus.However,therearedifferencesinthe levelofprotectionprovidedbythedifferentCaPVvaccinesincattle,andtherefore selection of the vaccine should always be based on demonstrated efficacy in con- trolledstudies.
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