Ludwig's Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants, Fourth Edition

1296 Pages·2015·5.03 MB·English

by  A. Kayode Coker PhD

Ludwig’s Applied Process
Design for Chemical
and Petrochemical Plants
Volume 3. Fourth Edition
A. Kayode Coker
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To honor God in all things and to perform everything
solely for the glory of God
“In the Light of Truth” by Abd-ru-shin
Dedication
In memory of Ernest E. Ludwig
(A great chemical engineer)
and
In loving memory of my parents
Mr. Gabriel Shodipo Coker and
Mrs. Esther Modupe Ajibike Coker
To my sons, Akintunde and Ebunoluwa
To my wife, Victoria Omolara Coker
Love and thanks
Crystal images (c) Office Masaru Emoto, LLC
Foreword
ErnestLudwig’sthree-volume“AppliedProcessDesignfor Industrial College, gives him deep insights into both the
Chemical and Petrochemical Plants” is one of the classic fundamentalscienceofprocessdesignandtheneedsofthe
texts of chemical engineering. It is known for its blend of students who grapple with its concepts. His industrial
practical, scientifically-based design methods and real- experience, including his current role as engineering coor-
worlddetailsofequipmentandprocesses,andithasbeena dinatoratSaudiAramcoShellRefineryCompany,together
trusted resource for a generation of process engineers. with his consulting work, have given him a broad under-
TheworldofplantdesignhasmovedonsinceLudwig’s standingofthereal-worldaspectsofprocessdesignandthe
first edition in the 1960s, and he authored two further requirementsofitspractitioners.Thefourtheditionreflects
editions to keep the material fresh and current. With his this balanced perspective, and it provides a resource of
passing, it has fallen to A. Kayode Coker to handle the great value for readers at every stage of their engineering
fourth edition. Dr. Coker brings a great breadth of experi- career. I heartily recommend it to you.
encetothisundertaking,bothfromacademiaandindustry,
and this uniquely equips him to take on the task. His aca- Alan Rossiter, PhD, PE
demic experience, including a period as Chairman of the President, Rossiter & Associates
Chemical & Process Engineering Department at Jubail Bellaire, Texas
xi
Preface to the Fourth Edition
This complete revision of Applied Process Design for Chapter16,“ProcessIntegration(PI)”isanewchapter.
Chemical and Petrochemical Plants, Volume III, builds The chapter reviews PI in heat exchanger networks,
uponthelateErnestE.Ludwig’sclassictexttoenhanceits involving a systematic and oriented approach to heating,
use as a chemical engineering design manual of methods cooling and power generation to process design, and opti-
and proven fundamentals with supplemental mechanical mization that exploits the interaction between different
and related data, nomographs and charts. Significantly units,exchangersandutilitiesinordertoemployresources
expanded and thoroughly updated, this fourth edition effectively and minimize costs. The Excel spreadsheet
contains new topics that will assist the engineer in exam- program from Ian C. Kemp’s text [21] has been used to
ining and analyzing problems and finding design methods determine pinch temperature, cold and hot pinch temper-
and mechanical specifications to secure the proper atures, hot and cold composite curves, grand composite
mechanical hardware to accomplish a process objective. curve, hot and cold utility requirements. The program fur-
This latest edition includes improved techniques and ther produces graphical outputs of pinch temperatures, hot
fundamentaldesignmethodologiestoguidetheengineerin and cold utility requirements at varying DT .
min
designingprocessequipment,suchasheatexchangertypes, Chapter 17, “Refrigeration Systems,” has been
compressors, and applying chemical processes to the improvedwithadditionaldataandnewsystemsdesignsfor
properly detailed hardware. Like its predecessor, this edi- light hydrocarbon refrigeration. The chapter introduces the
tioncontinuestopresentupdatedinformationforachieving Carnot refrigeration cycle and its performance, mechanical
optimum operational and process conditions and to avoid refrigeration, types ofrefrigeration systems and a glossary.
problemscausedbyinadequatesizingandlackofinternally Chapter 18, “Compression Equipment,” has been gen-
detailed hardware. The various derived and proven equa- erally updated with equations for the design of com-
tionshavebeenemployedinactualplantequipmentdesign, pressors, and it introduces other compressor types, such as
processcontrolandoperator’strainingandtheyaresomeof the oil flooded screw compressor and integrally geared
themostindispensableavailabletobothinexperiencedand compressors. The chapter reviews compressor trouble-
experienced engineers alike. shooting and applies Hysys simulation software on a case
This book further provides both fundamental theories study.
whereapplicableanddirectsapplicationofthesetheoriesto Chapter 19, “Reciprocating Compression Surge
applied equations essential in the design effort. This Drums,” presents several new techniques, as well as addi-
approach in presenting design information serves well for tional detailed examples. The chapter provides preliminary
troubleshooting heat exchangers, compressors equipment, designmethodsandprovidesthereaderwithreferencesfor
and in executing system performance analysis. the most effective design approach. Further, the chapter
Chapter 15, “Heat Transfer”, has been thoroughly reviews evaluation of the surge capacity and pulsation
revised and updated, and now includes several important frequenciesofthesystem,compressor,anddischargesurge
designtechniquesfordifficultcondensingsituationsandfor drums and discharge header in order to comprehend the
the application of thermosiphon reboilers, designs of air- performance of the compressor.
coolers,plateheatexchangers,doublepipeheatexchanger, Chapter20,“MechanicalDrivers,”hasbeenupdatedto
heat tracer requirements for pipelines and heat loss from include the latest code and standards of the National
insulated pipelines, batch heating and cooling of fluids, Electrical Manufacturer’s Association and information on
troubleshootingofheatexchangersandcasestudiesofheat new energy-efficient motors. The chapter describes the
exchangersfailures.Thechapterprovidesadetailedreview commonly used, general-purpose, alternating current
offoulinginheatexchangersandsolutionsinreducingthis motors and mechanical drive turbines that are used in the
phenomenon.Computerprogramshavebeendevelopedfor chemical and petrochemical industries. The chapter pro-
the design/rating of these exchanger types and Microsoft vides National Fire Codes for hazardous locations, and
Excelspreadsheetshavebeendevelopedtodealwithbatch articles that recognize certain subjects that are pertinent to
heating and cooling of fluids. the process engineer.
xiii
xiv Preface to the Fourth Edition
Chapter 21, “Industrial and Laboratory Reactors e available. All the above can be accessed from the
Chemical Reaction Hazard and Process Integration of Elsevier companion website: http://booksite.elsevier.com/
Reactors,” is a new chapter that reviews various reactor 9780750685245
types and their advantages and disadvantages with respect Iassumethatthereaderisanundergraduateorgraduate
to their individual applications and control. The chapter student in chemical or process engineering, or a chemical/
considers the design of a packed bed reactor by applying process, or other related engineer, having a sound knowl-
POLYMATH software in its design. Reviews of agitator edge of the fundamentals of the profession. With this
types pertinent to various reaction systems are considered, assumption, I illustrate the techniques of design and
asarecatalystsandcatalyticprocesses.Detailedanalysisof mechanical details necessary for the construction of pro-
chemical reaction hazards, hazard and operability (Hazop) cesses. The aim of the process engineer is to ensure that
studies of a batch process, hazard analysis (Hazan) and results of his or her process calculations for equipment are
others such as Process Hazard Analysis (PHA), Failure specified in terms of something that can be economically
Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA) and Fault Tree Analysis constructed or selected from special designs or manu-
(FTA) are reviewed. A case study of a runaway reaction facturers. This edition follows the format of previous edi-
incident at T2 Laboratories, Jacksonville, Florida, USA is tions, and the concept is stressed to a reasonable degree in
presented.ReactionSystemScreeningToolsforclassifying the various chapters.
runaway chemical reactions, hazards of pyrophoric reac- Thetechniquesofappliedchemicalplantprocessdesign
tions and heat integration of reactors are described. continuetoimproveasthescienceofchemicalengineering
Chapter22,“MetallurgyeCorrosion,”isanewchapter developsnewandbetterinterpretationsofthefundamentals
that describes factors affecting the selection of materials, of chemistry, physics, metallurgy, mechanical engineering
and reviews Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC),providing a and polymer/plastics science. Accordingly, this fourth
case study of a pressure vessel failure at NDK manu- edition presents additional reliable design methods based
facturingcompanyinBelvidere,Illinois,USA.Thechapter on sound experimental data, proven techniques developed
describes corrosion types with illustrations, factors affect- by companies and individuals and groups considered
ing the rate of corrosion and control. Finally, corrosion competent in their subjects and which are supported by
monitoring and common mistakes in chemical processing pertinent data. In many chemical and petrochemical pro-
plants are considered. cesses,thedesignerwillfinddesigntechniquesadaptableto
75to80%ofhis/herrequirements.Thus,anefforthasbeen
made to place this book in a position of utilization some-
Software/Programs/Excel Spreadsheets/
where between a handbook and an applied teaching text.
Charts
The present work is considered suitable to provide a
ExcelTM spreadsheet programs as worked examples, and practical guide to chemical process design for under-
developedcomputerprograms(AbsoftFortranTM)thatuse graduate and graduate students in chemical engineering,
the Microsoft Runtime Windows Environment (MRWE) practicing process engineers and chemical or process
are new additions to the fourth edition in various sections engineers working in process development. The text can
of the chapters. These programs are provided in execut- readily be used, if a general course in plant design is
able format, and Appendix I provides an illustration of available to fill in the broader factors associated with
their use. overall plant layout and planning.
Incorporated is Hysys simulation design software to Toaccesstheadditionalmaterialaccompanyingthisbook,
performcasestudiesandsomeworkedexamplesinthetext. pleasevisit:http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780750685245
A program on Conversion Tables developed by Onthiscompanion website thereare manyusefulExcel
Mr. Ahmed Mutuwa, formerly from SASREF Co., is spreadsheets,appendices,examplesandsoftware.
Biography
A. Kayode Coker, Ph.D., is an engineering coordinator at Engineering, all from Aston University, Birmingham, UK
Saudi Aramco Shell Refinery Company in Jubail, Saudi andaTeachers’CertificateinEducationattheUniversityof
Arabia, and was Chairman of Chemical & Process Engi- London, UK. He has directed and conducted short courses
neering Department at Jubail Industrial College, and is a in both the UK and for SABIC industries in Saudi Arabia.
consultant for AKC Technology in England. He has been His articles have been published in several international
bothacharteredscientistandacharteredchemicalengineer journals, he is an author of four books in chemical engi-
formorethan 30years. HeisaFellow oftheInstitution of neering and a contributor to the encyclopedia of Chemical
Chemical Engineers, UK, (C.Eng., CSci, FIChemE). He is Processing and Design, vol. 61. He was named as one of
alsoaseniormemberoftheAmericanInstituteofChemical the International Biographical Centre (Headquarters in
Engineers (MAIChE). He holds a B.Sc. honors degree in Cambridge, UK) as LEADING ENGINEERS of the World
Chemical Engineering, a Master of Science degree in 2008.Also,heisamemberofInternationalWho’sWhoof
ProcessAnalysisandDevelopment,andPh.D.inChemical ProfessionalsTM and Madison’s Who’s Who in the US.
xv
Acknowledgments
This final project of Ludwig’s three-volume texts is a cul­ B. Cutlip for granting permission to use the POLYMATH
mination of four years of research, collating relevant and software.
recent materials from organizations, institutions, companies Many organizations, institutions and companies such as
and publishers. The three-volume texts took twelve years to Gas Processors Supplier Associations (GPSA), USA,
complete, and soliciting for proofreaders has also been an American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), The
important step in the editorial process. Emulating the Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE), Absoft
incredible work of the late Ernest E. Ludwig is a formidable Corporation© USA, Chemical Engineering magazine by
task, and without the help of various experts in their field of Access Intelligence, USA , Hydrocarbon Processing,
specializations and organizations, this project would have Chemical Safety & Hazard Investigation Board (CSB),
been impossible to achieve. have readily given permission for the use of materials, and
My mentor, the late Dr. Clive Mumford, had provided their release for publication. I greatly acknowledge and
constructive criticisms and inspiration in earlier works of express my deepest gratitude to these organizations.
the three-volume text for which I am deeply grateful. His I have been privileged to meet with wonderful indi­
views on various aspects in the earlier volumes and his viduals such as Tim Calk and Phil Carmical, former editors
attention to intricate details are greatly appreciated. of Gulf Publishing Company and Elsevier respectively. Phil
Sincere appreciation and thanks to Mr. Dale Gulley and first suggested Ludwig’s classic work over twelve years
Mr. Manish Shah for their critical reviews and providing ago and defended my proposals in the presence of
invaluable comments and suggestion for the various aspects Elsevier’s management to revise the three volumes of
of Chapter 15. In particular, Mr. Shah also gave permission Ludwig. It has been an eventful and formidable task and I
to include his article “Good Practice for Heat Exchanger thank you for your trust and encouragement. To Tim, I am
Selection and Design” in Appendix M of the text. Many grateful for your friendship and help since my first book
thanks to Professors John R. Thome for providing figures some nineteen years ago.
relating to boiling and evaporation in Chapter 15, Gratitude to the students of Chemical Engineering
Mahmoud El-Halwagi, Robin Smith and Daniel R. Lewin Technology major during my tenure as an instructor and as
for granting permission to incorporate exercises and departmental chairman at Jubail Industrial College, Saudi
examples from their texts in Chapter 16 and Professor Arabia. It has indeed been a privilege to have enriched the
Toyin Ashiru for providing figures for Chapter 22. lives of these individuals in chemical engineering and to
Chapter 16, a new chapter on process integration, have learned from them also.
involved the participation of many experts, namely: I also wish to express my sincere thanks to the Elsevier
Drs. Gavin Towler, Alan Rossiter and Uday V. Shenoy. I team: Jonathan Simpson, Naomi Robertson, Pauline
would like to record my appreciation and gratitude to these Wilkinson, Fiona Geraghty, and Cari Owen, and the pro­
renowned people for their expert knowledge and help in duction staff for their patience and professionalism in the
providing suggestions and comments in the text. This production of this final volume.
chapter is greatly enhanced by comments and suggestions Finally,
provided by these individuals and the review of case studies Bow down in humility before the Greatness of God,
carried out by Dr. Alan Rossiter. whose Love is never ending, and who sends us his help at
Dr. James P. Burelbach has provided an invaluable help all times. He alone is Life and the Power and the Glory
in reviewing aspects of Chapter 21 relating to two-phase forever and ever.
flow in reactors, incorporating the new methodology and
sizing equations, for which I am deeply grateful. Also, A. Kayode Coker
I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Micheal
xvii
Chapter 15
Heat Transfer
Theescalatingcostofenergyinrecentyearshasresultedin introduced through the shell-side, and viscous liquids, for
increased attention being given to conservation and effi- whichthepressuredropforflowthroughthetubesishigh,
cient energy management. Other types of technology, for are introduced on the shell-side.
example, pinch technology (Chapter 16) have been Generally, shell and tube exchanger types are non-
employedintheenergyintegrationofprocessplantsandof compact exchangers, and the heat-transfer area per unit
heat exchangers, in particular. This has resulted in volume ranges from 15 to 30ft2/ft3 (50e100m2/m3).
improved plant performance and reduced operation costs. Therefore, they require a considerable amount of space,
Heat transfer is perhaps the most important, as well as the supportstructure,capitalandinstallationcosts.Asaresult,
most applied, process inrefining, gas processing, chemical they are often replaced with compact heat exchangers
andpetrochemicalplants.Theeconomicsofplantoperation (e.g.plateexchangers,spiralplateheatexchangers)inthose
are controlled by the effectiveness of the use and recovery applications where the operating conditions permit it. For
of heat or cold (refrigeration). The service functions of the equivalent cost of the shell and tube exchangers,
steam,power,refrigeration supplyandthelikearedictated compact heat exchangers provide high effectiveness and
by how these services or utilities are used within the pro- are more efficient in heat (energy) transfer.
cess to produce an efficient conversion and recovery of Although many excellent references [5,22,36,40,61,70,
heat. 74,82,286,287,288and289]areavailable,andthetechnical
Shell and tube heat exchanger types are widely literature contains important details of good heat transfer
employed,andgenerally,theyarecustomdesignedforany designprinciplesandgoodapproachestoequipmentdesign,
capacity and operating conditions, including from high anunknownfactorstillentersintoeverydesign.Thisfactor
vacuum to ultra-high pressures of over 15,000psig isthescaleorfoulingfromthefluidsbeingprocessedandis
(100MPa),fromcryogenicconditionstohightemperatures wholly dependent on the fluids, their temperature and ve-
of w2000(cid:1)F (1100(cid:1)C), and any temperature and pressure locity,andtoacertainextent,thenatureoftheheat-transfer
differencesbetweenthefluids,limitedonlybythematerials tube surface and its chemical composition. Due to the un-
ofconstruction.Theycanbedesignedforspecialoperating known nature of the assumptions, these fouling factors can
conditions: heavy fouling, highly viscous fluids, erosion, markedly affect the design of heat transfer equipment. We
corrosion, toxicity, multicomponent mixtures, vibration, shallreviewthisaspect,andotherssuchasthepressuredrop,
etc.Theyarethemostversatileexchangertypesmadefrom laterinthechapterasthesecouldhavedeleteriouseffectson
a variety of metals (e.g. Admiralty, copper, alloys, monel, the performance of heat exchangers resulting in high oper-
nickel, aluminum, carbon/stainless steel, etc.) and non- ating costs of millions of US dollars per annum. Conven-
metal materials (e.g. graphite, glass and Teflon) and in tional practiceispresented here; however,Kernand Seaton
various sizes from 1ft2 (0.1m2) to 106ft2 (105m2). They [71] have proposed thermal concepts that may offer new
are extensively employed as process heat exchangers in approaches.
petroleumrefining,petrochemicalsandchemicalindustries; Themostpopularandreliablesoftwarepackagesforthe
as boiler feed water heaters, phase change heatexchangers design or rating of shell and tube heat exchangers are:
(e.g. reboilers and condensers), evaporators, steam gener-
l BJAC: USA based company
ators and oil coolers in power plants, in some air condi-
l HEI: Heat Exchange Institute, USA
tioning and refrigeration applications; in waste heat
l HTRI: Heat Transfer Research Institute (www.HTRI.
recovery applications with heat recovery from liquids and
net), USA
condensing fluids and in environmental control. The tube-
l HFTS: Heat Transfer Fluid Flow Services (HTFS pro-
side is for corrosive, heavy fouling, scaling, hazardous,
gramsarepartofAspenTechnology’sAspenEngineer-
high temperature and pressure, and more expensive fluids,
ing Suite and Honeywell’s UniSim Design Suite)
whiletheshell-sideisforcleaner,moreviscous,lowerflow
rate, evaporating and condensing fluids. When a gas or Generally, the design methods and equations used by
vapor is used as an exchanger fluid, it is typically these companies and institutes are proprietary and
Ludwig’sAppliedProcessDesignforChemicalandPetrochemicalPlants.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-7506-8524-5.00015-X 1
Copyright©2015ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
2 Ludwig’sAppliedProcessDesignforChemicalandPetrochemicalPlants
therefore, are not provided in the open literature. Tinker
[290,291] published the first detailed stream analysis streams. The shell type has a significant effect on the flow
configuration and thermal performance of the heat ex-
method for predicting shell and tube heat transfer co-
efficientsandpressuredrop,andhismodelhasbeenusedas changers. Shell and tube heat exchangers use baffles to
transport heat to or from tube-side process fluids by
the basis for the proprietary computer methods developed
by these institutes and companies. Tinker’s method is directing the shell-side fluid flow. The increased structural
difficult and tedious to apply in manual calculations. support that baffles provide is essential to the tube’s sta-
However,ithasbeensimplifiedbyDevore[292,293],using bility, as they prevent the tube from sagging due to its
structuralweightandalsominimizevibrationduetocyclic
standard tolerances for commercial exchangers and only a
limited number of baffle cuts. Devore has presented no- flowforces.Bafflesimproveheattransferattheexpenseof
increased pressure drop. Tubesheets seal the ends of the
mographs that facilitate the application of the method in
manual calculations. Mueller [294] has further simplified tubes, ensuring separation between the two streams.
Devore’smethodandprovidesanillustrativeexample.Bell The process engineer needs to understand the termi-
nology of the heat transfer equipment manufacturers in
[295,296] has provided a semi-analytical method based on
order to properly design, specify, evaluate bids and to
researchprogramscarriedoutonshellandtubeexchangers
check drawings of this equipment.
at the University of Delaware, where his results accounted
The shell and tube exchanger consists of four major
for the major bypass and leakage streams.
parts:
This text provides the designer with a basis for
manually checking the expected equations, coefficients, l Front header e this is where the fluid enters the tube-
etc., enabling him/her to accept or reject the computed side of the exchanger. It is sometimes referred to as
results.Thetextprovidesabasisforcompletelydesigning the stationary header.
theprocessheattransferequipment(exceptforspecialized l Rear header e this is where the tube-side fluid leaves
items such as fired heaters, steam boiler/generators, theexchanger,orwhereitisreturnedtothefrontheader
cryogenic equipment and some other process re- in exchangers with multiple tube-side passes.
quirements), and sizing (for mechanical dimensions/ l Tubebundleethiscomprisesofthetubes,tubesheets,
details, but not for pressure or strength) the mechanical bafflesandtierodsetc.whichholdthebundletogether.
hardware thatwill accomplish this function. Additionally, l Shell e this contains the tube bundle.
the text presents research studies on fouling in shell and
ThestandardsoftheTubularExchangerManufacturers
tube heat exchangers, and, in particular, in pre-heat trains
in the refining of crude oil. Detailed reviews are supplied Association(TEMA)[107]istheonlyassemblyofunfired
mechanical standards, including selected design details
with examples, employing developed Microsoft Excel
programs for determining heat transfer coefficients in and Recommended Good Practice and it is used by all
reputable exchanger manufacturers in the US and many
jacketed, agitated vessels and the time required for batch
manufacturers in other countries who supply US plant
processing involving isothermal and non-isothermal
equipment.Thesestandardsaredeveloped,assembledand
heating and cooling conditions with coils and external
updatedbyatechnicalcommitteeofassociationmembers.
heat exchangers, as experienced in various chemical pro-
The standards are updated and reissued every tenyears.
cess industries.
They do not designate or recommend thermal design
methods or practices for specific process applications, but
TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT they do outline basic heat transfer fundamentals, and list
suggested fouling factors for a wide variety of fluid or
TERMINOLOGY
process services.
The chemical process industries (CPIs) require heat ex- ThethreeclassesofmechanicalstandardsinTEMAare
changerstotransferheatfromahotstreamtoacoldstream. Classes R, C and B, and they represent varying degrees of
This heat transfer equipment must meet various codes/ mechanical details for the designated process plant appli-
standardstodealwiththethermal,mechanical,operational, cations’severity.Thescopeofstandards/codedesignations
installation and maintenance demands of the process. The [TEMA e 2007, 9th Ed] for mechanical design and
optimal heat exchanger design should minimize operating fabrication are:
costs and maximize product output. Shell and tube heat RCBeIncludesallclassesofconstruction/designand
exchangers(Figures15-1BeD)consistofabundleoftubes areidentical;shelldiameter(inside)notexceeding100in.
inside a cylindrical shell. One fluid (the tube-side fluid) (2540mm); product of nominal diameter, in. (mm); and
flows inside the tubes while the other fluid (the shell-side design pressure of 100,000psi (17.5 (cid:3) 106kPa); and
fluid)flowsthroughtheshellandaroundthetubes.Heatis maximum design pressure of 3,000psi (20684kPa). The
transferredacrossthetubewallseparatingthehotandcold intention of these parameters is to limit the maximum