Low-Calorie Foods and Food Ingredients

196 Pages·1993·3.22 MB·English

by  J. E. Blundell

Low-Calorie Foods and Food Ingredients
Low-Calorie Foods and
Food Ingredients
Edited by
RIAZ KHAN
Scicntific Director
POL Y -bios LBT
Tricstc
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
First edition 1993
Reprinted 1996
© 1993 Springer Science+Business Media New York
Originally published by Blackie Academic & Professional in 1993
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover Ist edition 1993
Typeset in IOll2pt Times, by Faleon Graphie Art, Surrey
ISBN 978-1-4613-6362-0 ISBN 978-1-4615-3114-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-3114-2
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Contributors
Dr G. Annison CSIRO Division of Human Nutrition,
Glenthorne Laboratory, Majors Road,
O'Halloran Hill, SA 5158, Australia
Dr R.N. Antenucci Formerly Product Development, McNeil
Specialty Products. Now at A VEBE
America, Inc., 4 Independence Way, CN5307,
Princeton, NJ 08543-5370, USA
Dr R.L. Barndt Product Development, McNeil Specialty
Products, 501 George Street, PO Box 2400,
New Brunswick, NJ 08903-2400, USA
Dr C. Bertocchi POLY-bios LBT, Area di Ricerca, Padriciano
99, 1-34012 Trieste, Italy
Professor J.E. Blundell Department of Psychology, University of
Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
Dr F.R.J. Bornet Nutrition and Health Department, Eridania
Beghin-Say, Gruppo Ferruzzi, 54 Avenue
Hoche 75008, Paris, France
Mrs C. Bressan Laboratoire de Chimie Physique Industrielle,
Faculte des Sciences, Universite de Reims
Champagne-Ardenne, BP347 , 51062 Reims
Cedex, France
Dr C. de Graaf Department of Human Nutrition, University
of Wageningen, PO Box 8129, 6700EV
Wageningen, The Netherlands
Professor L. Hough 20 Newstead Way, Wimbledon, London,
SW195HR, UK
Dr R. Khan POLY-bios LBT, Area di Ricerca, Padriciano
99, 1-34012 Trieste, Italy
Dr M.G.Lindley Lintech, Reading University Innovation
Centre, Philip Lyle Building, PO Box 68,
Whiteknights, Reading, RG6 2BX, UK
Professor M. Mathlouthi Laboratoire de Chimie Physique Industrielle,
Faculte des Sciences, Universite de Reims
Champagne-Ardenne, BP347, 51062 Reims
Cedex, France
Dr S.V. Molinary Tate & Lyle Speciality Sweeteners, PO Box 68,
Whiteknights, Reading RG6 2BX, UK
Mr G. Urquhart Tate & Lyle Speciality Sweeteners, PO Box 68,
Whiteknights, Reading PG6 2BX, UK
Contents
Editorial introduction xi
R. KHAN
1 Low-calorie foods: relevance for body weight control 1
J.E. BLUNDELL and C. de GRAAF
1.1 Overconsumption and low·calorie foods 1
1.2 Appetite and the regulation of body weight 2
1.3 Appetite control and the satiety cascade 3
1.4 Nutrition and satiety 4
1.5 Relationship between body weight and use of carbohydrate or high-intensity
sweeteners 7
1.5.1 Effects on energy intake 8
1.5.2 Effects on subjective feelings of hunger 10
1.5.3 Overview 10
1.6 Dietary fat and appetite control 11
1.6.1 Experimental manipulations 13
1.6.2 Satiation and satiety in response to fat 14
1.6.3 Dietary fat and appetite - is there a paradox? 15
1. 7 Low-calorie products - physiological responses 16
1.8 Low-calorie products - psychological responses 17
1.9 Summary 18
References 18
2 Regulatory aspects of low-calorie food 22
G. URQUHART and S.V. MOLINARY
2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 Regulatory bodies 22
2.2.1 International bodies 22
2.2.2 National bodies 23
2.3 Controls on the components of low-calorie foods 24
2.3.1 Additives 24
2.3.2 Definition of additives 24
2.3.3 Safety assessment of additives 25
2.3.4 Estimating exposure 26
2.3.5 Legislative control of additives 27
2.3.6 Format of a food additive application 28
2.4 Controls on the composition of low-calorie foods 29
2.5 Novel foods 29
2.6 Labelling of low-calorie foods 30
2.6.1 Claims 31
2.6.2 Nutritional information 32
2.6.3 Medical information 33
2.7 Conclusion 34
References 34
Vlll LOW-CALORIE FOODS AND FOOD INGREDIENTS
3 Low-calorie bulk sweeteners: nutrition and metabolism 36
F.RJ. BORNET
3.1 Introduction 36
3.1.1 Sucrose 36
3.1.2 Sweetness and taste profile 36
3.1.3 Physicochemical properties and food applications 36
3.1.4 Ideal low-calorie bulk sweeteners 37
3.2 Sugar alcohols 38
3.2.1 Sources and production pathways 38
3.2.2 Sorbitol 38
3.2.3 Mannitol 39
3.2.4 Xylitol 39
3.2.5 Erythritol 39
3.2.6 Lactitol 40
3.2.7 Maltitol 41
3.2.8 Isomalt (Palatinit®) 41
3.2.9 Hydrogenated glucose syrup 41
3.3 Physicochemical and functional properties of sugar alcohols 41
3.3.1 Taste profiles 41
3.3.2 Solubility 41
3.3.3 Viscosity 42
3.3.4 Hygroscopicity 42
3.4 Fructo-oligosaccharides 42
3.4.1 Introduction 42
3.4.2 Functional properties of fructo-oligosaccharides 42
3.5 Nutritional properties 44
3.5.1 Introduction 44
3.5.2 Digestion-absorption 44
3.5.3 Digestive tolerance 45
3.5.4 Calorific value 46
3.5.5 Carbohydrate metabolism 47
3.6 Conclusions 51
References 51
4 Low-calorie bulking ingredients: nutrition and metabolism 53
G. ANNISON, C. BERTOCCHI and R. KHAN
4.1 Introduction 53
4.2 Dietary fibres 54
4.2.1 Introduction 54
4.2.2 Sources and functional properties 54
4.2.3 Physiological effects 55
4.3 Low-calorie polysaccharides 55
4.3.1 Introduction 55
4.3.2 Pectins 57
4.3.3 B-Glucans 59
4.3.4 Galactomannans 59
4.3.5 Carrageenan 61
4.3.6 Agar 62
4.3.7 Alginic acid 63
4.3.8 Xanthan gum 64
4.3.9 Polydextrose 65
4.3.10 Resistant starch 65
4.4 Nutrition and metabolism 67
4.4.1 Introduction 67
CONTENTS IX
4.4.2 Digestion of polysaccharides in the foregut 67
4.4.3 Degradation of polysaccharides in the large bowel 68
4.4.4 Fermentation of carbohydrates 69
4.4.5 Metabolism of fermentation products 70
4.4.6 Energy value of non-nutritive bulking agents 70
4.5 Conclusions 74
References 74
5 Fat replacer ingredients and the markets for fat-reduced foods 77
M.G.LINDLEY
5.1 Introduction 77
5.2 Some issues surrounding fat substitution 79
5.2.1 Introduction 79
5.2.2 Disease risks 80
5.2.3 Nutrition and health 82
5.2.4 Consumer acceptance and labelling 85
5.2.5 Technology 86
5.3 Fat substitutes and replacers 87
5.3.1 Introduction 87
5.3.2 Fat substitutes 87
5.3.3 'Lower' calorie fat substitutes 93
5.3.4 Carbohydrates as fat replacers 96
5.3.5 Proteins as fat replacers 98
5.3.6 Fat replacer formulations 100
5.3.7 Sensory implications of fat reduction 101
5.4 Markets for fat-reduced foods and fat replacer ingredients 102
5.4.1 Introduction 102
5.4.2 Markets for fat-reduced foods 103
5.4.3 Markets for fat replacer ingredients 104
5.5 Conclusions 104
References 105
6 Fat and calorie-modified bakery products 106
R.L. BARNDT and R.N. ANTENUCCI
6.1 Introduction 106
6.2 Marketing overview 107
6.2.1 Calorie Control Council United States consumer survey 107
6.2.2 Baked goods concept research 109
6.2.3 Cake mix concept research 112
6.2.4 Market trends in the United States 113
6.2.5 Projects lightning and thunder 114
6.2.6 How did the baking industry respond? 115
6.2.7 Calorie Control Council European consumer survey 117
6.2.8 International market trends 119
6.2.9 Cooking and baking in the home 119
6.3 Technical overview 121
6.3.1 Reduced-calorie baked goods 121
6.3.2 Fat replacement in baked goods 121
6.3.3 Sugar replacement in baked goods 125
6.3.4 Technical issues 133
6.4 Conclusion 135
References 136
x LOW-CALORIE FOODS AND FOOD INGREDIENTS
7 High-intensity, low-calorie sweeteners 138
L. HOUGH
7.1 Introduction 138
7.2 Approved artificial sweeteners 142
7.2.1 Saccharin 142
7.2.2 Cyclamate 143
7.2.3 Acesulfame-K 144
7.2.4 Aspartame 145
7.2.5 Thaumatins 148
7.2.6 Steviosides 150
7.2.7 Neohesperidine dihydrochalcone (NHDC) 152
7.2.8 Glycyrrhizin 153
7.2.9 Sucralose 154
7.3 High-intensity sweeteners under development 157
7.3.1 Monellin 157
7.3.2 Miraculin 158
7.3.3 Urea and thiourea derivatives: suosan and super aspartame 158
7.3.4 Guanidino derivatives: sucrononic acid 159
7.3.5 Alitame 159
7.3.6 Monatin 160
7.4 Conclusions 161
Acknowledgement 162
References 162
8 Low-calorie soft drinks 165
M. MATHLOUTHI and C. BRESSAN
8.1 Introduction 165
8.2 Market and technical needs 166
8.2.1 Consumers and statistics 166
8.2.2 Technical needs 167
8.3 Formulation of low-calorie soft drinks 168
8.3.1 Sweetness 168
8.3.2 Bulking ingredients 170
8.4 Commercial artificial sweeteners 174
8.4.1 Introduction 174
8.4.2 Aspartame 174
8.4.3 Acesulfame-K 175
8.4.4 Saccharin 175
8.4.5 Cyclamate 175
8.4.6 Sucralose 176
8.4.7 Thaumatin 176
8.4.8 Neohesperidine dihydrochalcone (NHDC) 176
8.5 Conclusion 177
References 177
Index 179
Xli LOW-CALORIE FOODS AND FOOD INGREDIENTS
toxicological trials, long lead-time required for the safety approval, process
development and market research. As a rough estimate, the time required
for a product like a high-intensity sweetener from the initial discovery to its
introduction to the market is about fifteen years and the cost could be
between 15 and 20 million pounds sterling. However, judging from the
ever increasing sales of low-calorie products with high-intensity sweeten
ers, fat substitutes and bulking materials, such an investment in research
and development will be justifiable.
Low-calorie foods can be divided into ingredients such as carbohydrates,
proteins and fat, and additives such as high-intensity sweeteners, fat
substitutes and bulking materials like polydextrose. When a new food
additive or ingredient is developed it is the responsibility of the company to
obtain the seal of approval of safety in use from the regulatory authority of
the country where the product is to be marketed. The main regulatory
authorities in the advanced countries are: the Food and Drug Administra
tion (FDA) of the USA, the Food Advisory Committee (FAC) of the UK,
the FAO/WHO Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), the
EC Scientific Committee for Food (SCF), the Health Protection Branch
(HPB) of Canada, the Life Hygiene Bureau, Ministry of Health and
Welfare (Japan), the National Food Authority (NFA) of Australia, the
Food Standards Committee of New Zealand, the Codex Alimentarius
Commission (CAC) and the Organisation of Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD).
Regulatory procedures for obtaining approval for additives that are to be
used in small quantities, such as a high-intensity sweeteners, are ade
quately defined. In most of the European countries, the company which
owns the product has first to prove the case for 'need' and then the case for
'safety-in-use'. In the USA it is not necessary to demonstrate the case for
'need'. The FDA 'Red Book' (Toxicological Principles for the Safety
Assessment of Direct Food Additives), currently being revised, gives a
comprehensive list of the type of studies required for submission for safety
approval. Typically these include: (a) additive identification and character
isation; (b) use and the projected level of intake; and ( c) toxicological data.
The safety testings are carried out to a standard set by the FDA called
Good Laboratory Practice (GLP). The tests include: acute toxicity
(mouse, rat); genetic toxicology; metabolism and pharmacokinetics (rat,
dog, man); sub-acute toxicity (rat, dog); reproductive toxicology, teratol
ogy (rat, rabbit); chronic toxicity, carcinogenicity (rat); biochemistry,
immunology, studies on the impurities if required; ecotoxicology, biode
gradability, environmental impact.
The responsibility for safety assessment and risk management of the
product continues to lie with the regulatory authorities of the country
where the approval has been granted. The risk evaluation of a food
additive is based on the concept that any food given in large enough