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ch-Pre 3/22/02 3:19 PM Page iii Lockhart & Wiseman’s crop husbandry including grassland Eighth edition H. J. S. Finch, A. M. Samuel and G. P. F. Lane W OODHEAD PUBLISHING LIMITED Cambridge England ch-Pre 3/22/02 3:19 PM Page iv Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited Abington Hall,Abington Cambridge CB1 6AH England www.woodhead-publishing-com First edition 1966 Pergamon Press Ltd Second edition 1970 Third edition 1975 Reprinted 1976 Fourth edition 1978 Reprinted with additions 1980 Fifth edition 1983 Reprinted 1984 Sixth edition 1988 Seventh edition 1993 Reprinted 2000 Woodhead Publishing Ltd by agreement with Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd Eighth edition 2002 Woodhead Publishing Ltd ©1993,J A R Lockhart,A J L Wiseman,H J S Finch and A M Samuel ©2002,Woodhead Publishing Limited The authors have asserted their moral rights Conditions of sale This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission,and sources are indicated. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials. Neither the authors nor the publisher,nor anyone else associated with this publication,shall be liable for any loss,damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,including photocopying,microfilming,and recording,or by any information storage or retrieval system,without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The consent of Woodhead Publishing Ltd does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Ltd for such copying. Trademark notice:Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,and are used only for identification and explanation,without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 1 85573 549 0 Cover design by The ColourStudio Typeset and printed by Replika Press Pvt Ltd,Delhi 110 040,India ch-Pre 3/22/02 3:19 PM Page ii Related titles from Woodhead’s food science, technology and nutrition list: Fruit and vegetable processing (ISBN 1 85573 548 2) Fruit and vegetables are both major food products in their own right and key ingredients in many processed foods. This new book provides an authoritative survey of the latest research on improving the sensory,nutritional and functional qualities of fruit and vegetables whether as fresh or processed goods for the customer. Fruit and vegetable biotechnology (ISBN 1 85573 467 2) The genetic modification of food is one of the most significant and controversial developments in food processing. This important new collection reviews its application to fruit and vegetables. Part 1 looks at techniques and their applications in improving production and product quality. Part 2 discusses how genetic modification has been applied to specific crops,whilst Part 3 considers safety and consumer issues. Kent’s technology of cereals Fourth edition (ISBN 1 85573 361 7) This well-established textbook provides students of food science with an authoritative and comprehensive study of cereal technology. Kent compares the merits and limitations of individual cereals as sources of food products as well as looking at the effects of processing treatments on the nutritive value of the products. The fourth edition of this classic book has been thoroughly updated with new sections including extrusion cooking and the use of cereals for animal feed. Details of these books and a complete list of Woodhead’s food science, technology and nutrition titles can be obtained by: • visiting our web site at www.woodhead-publishing.com • contacting Customer services (e-mail: [email protected]; fax: +44 (0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext.30; address: Woodhead Publishing Ltd,Abington Hall,Abington,Cambridge CB1 6AH, England) If you would like to receive information on forthcoming titles in this area, please send your address details to: Francis Dodds (address, tel. and fax as above; e-mail: [email protected]). Please confirm which subject areas you are interested in. ch-Pre 3/22/02 3:19 PM Page xi Foreword Since the last edition of this book was published, British agriculture has seen the start of what can almost be described as a revolution – certainly radical changes in the industry are now developing. It is probably true to say that, apart from the fact that the country is importing more of its food requirements, another important reason is a growing realisation that the countryside has a multi-purpose use–farming, conservation (wildlife and protection of the environment) and tourism. It is difficult to ignore the fact that tourism in the countryside is worth annually about £12 billion (2001) which compares with farm income in the same year of £2 billion – a lower than anticipated figure because of low cereal yields and prices,and the devastating effects of foot and mouth disease. But if agriculture is no longer the main industry in our rural areas,it remains true that prosperous farming does mean,in the main,an attractive countryside – a fact which should find favour with conservationists and those who visit the countryside for recreation. The 1990s (particularly the second half) saw a catastrophic downturn in farm income as a result of the strong pound and the industry – through the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy – starting to line itself up with world prices and,at the same time,making a definitive move towards a more environmental approach to farming. In this last context yield can no longer be the sole motive in obtaining an economic return; there are other criteria,not the least of which is one that is compatible with its effect on the environment in its widest context. More attention will certainly be paid to this in the future, and its importance is underlined in this new edition. However,yield,crop economy,conservation and other factors,important and relevant as they are in this new century,mean little in today’s climate without good husbandry. As previously, particular attention has been given to the basic factors concerned with growing the crop but, as mentioned, more reference is now made to crop economy. ch-Pre 3/22/02 3:19 PM Page xii xii Foreword Steve Finch, Senior Lecturer in Crop Production at the Royal Agricultural College,and Alison Samuel,Senior Associate Lecturer from the University of Plymouth,Department of Agriculture and Food Studies,Seale-Hayne Campus, have now been joined by Gerry Lane, Principal Lecturer in Crop Production at the Royal Agricultural College as the main authors of this new edition. The revision of Part 1 – Conditions for Crop Growth – has been the responsibility of Steve Finch for Plants,Fertilisers and Manures,Climate and Weather. This last chapter has been radically changed now that there is more awareness of the possible new pattern of climate and its effect on crop growth. Alison Samuel has written the chapters on Soils and Soil Management,Weeds, Pests and Plant Diseases. The pests and diseases tables,which in previous editions concluded the one chapter on these aspects of crop production,have now been placed at the end of the now two respective chapters. This should make for easier reading. The increasing problem of resistance to pesticides is discussed in some detail. In Part 2–Crop Husbandry Techniques–Steve Finch is responsible for the chapter on Cropping Techniques whilst Integrated Crop Management is written by Keith Chaney,Principal Lecturer and Head of Crops Group,Harper Adams University College. This,in some depth,discusses intensive rotational cropping, certainly a move away from continuous cereal growing which was considered an important aspect of arable cropping in earlier editions of this book. As a practising organic farmer,Alison Samuel has enlarged on this subject which now merits a chapter on its own. This must be considered relevant. In 2000 there were 420000 hectares (2.3% of total UK farm land) in organic and in conversion land–an increase of 72% from 1999. Gerry Lane deals with the specialised subject of seed production, concluding this section of the book. Part 3 concerns the management of the individual crops,with Alison Samuel, as in the previous edition, updating cereals, and Steve Finch root crops. The abolition of potato quotas and its implications are discussed. Gerry Lane has written the chapter on forage crops,whilst Richard Baldwin,Senior Lecturer, Pershore College is responsible for Fresh Harvested Crops (vegetable production on farms). Rhys Davies, Senior Lecturer in Crop Production, Harper Adams University College has written Combinable Break Crops; these are even more relevant with the continuing decline in returns from the cereal crop. In Part 4 Gerry Lane has taken over all aspects of my chapters on Grassland and Grass Conservation. As well as the husbandry and management of the crop, a re-evaluation of the grass and grass/legume crops is undertaken and the central role they can play in livestock farming is discussed. Jim Lockhart retired before the Seventh edition; I am now retired and so all the technical input for this edition is the responsibility of the aforementioned authors, and this we are more than glad to acknowledge. Colleagues of theirs who have given helpful advice are also thanked, particularly Diddie Sims assisting Alison Samuel; Sarah Cook of ADAS,Boxworth for help in compiling the section on sunflowers. John Conway,Paul Davies and Tom Overbury from the Royal Agricultural College should also be especially mentioned. ch-Pre 3/22/02 3:19 PM Page xiii Foreword xiii I do speak for the authors in thanking Francis Dodds,our Editor at Woodhead Publishing; his patience in dealing with them is almost beyond human comprehension! He had a trying time but was invariably polite and amazingly was able to keep the preparation up to schedule. He certainly deserves our thanks. Tony Wiseman ch-Pre 3/22/02 3:19 PM Page v Contents Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Part 1 Conditions for crop growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.1 Plant physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Plant groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3 Structure of the seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.4 Plant structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.5 Plant requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1.6 Legumes and nitrogen fixation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1.7 The control of plant growth and development . . . . . . . 24 1.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2 Soils and soil management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.1 Soil formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.2 Other factors in soil formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.3 The physical make-up of soil and its effect on plant growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.4 Soil fertility and productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.5 Farm soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.6 Soil improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 2.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3 Fertilisers and manures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.1 Nutrients required by crops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.2 Trace elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3.3 Units of plant food. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.4 Straight fertilisers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 ch-Pre 3/22/02 3:19 PM Page vi vi Contents 3.5 Compound fertilisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.6 Application of fertilisers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.7 Organic manures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.8 Residual values of fertilisers and manures. . . . . . . . . . 77 3.9 Fertilisers and the environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 4 Climate and weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.2 Solar radiation and rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 4.3 Air and soil temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.4 Other aspects of climate and weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.5 Climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 5 Weeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 5.1 The impact of weeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 5.2 Weed types and identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 5.3 Control of weeds: general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 5.4 Weed control in cereals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 5.5 Weed control in other combinable crops . . . . . . . . . . . 105 5.6 Weed control in root crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 5.7 Weed control in grassland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 5.8 Spraying with herbicides: precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 5.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 6 Pests of farm crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 6.1 Insects and nematodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 6.2 Other pests of crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 6.3 Types of pest damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 6.4 Methods of pest control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 6.5 Classification of pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 6.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 7 Diseases of farm crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 7.1 Introduction to plant disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 7.2 Types of damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 7.3 Some important types of pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 7.4 Other disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 7.5 The control of plant diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 7.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Part 2 Crop husbandry techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 ch-Pre 3/22/02 3:19 PM Page vii Contents vii 8 Cropping techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 8.1 Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 8.2 Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 8.3 Warping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 8.4 Claying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 8.5 Tillage and cultivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 8.6 Control of weeds by cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 8.7 Crop management: key issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 8.8 Break crops and crop rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 8.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 9 Integrated crop management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 9.2 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 9.3 Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 9.4 Crop rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 9.5 Soil management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 9.6 Crop nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 9.7 Crop protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 9.8 Food quality and safety in the food chain . . . . . . . . . . 217 9.9 Wildlife and conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 9.10 Crop assurance schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 9.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 10 Organic crop husbandry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 10.1 Organic farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 10.2 Achieving organic status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 10.3 Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 10.4 Soil and plant nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 10.5 Weed control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 10.6 Disease control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 10.7 Pest control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 10.8 Husbandry examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 10.9 Other systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 10.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 11 Plant breeding and seed production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 11.2 Plant breeding methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 11.3 Target traits in breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 11.4 Choosing the right variety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 11.5 Seed quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 11.6 Seed production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 11.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 ch-Pre 3/22/02 3:19 PM Page viii viii Contents Part 3 The management of individual crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 12 Cereals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 12.2 Grain quality in cereals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 12.3 Cereal growth and yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 12.4 Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 12.5 Grain-drying methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 12.6 Moist grain storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 12.7 Cereal straw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 12.8 Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 12.9 Durum wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 12.10 Barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 12.11 Oats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 12.12 Rye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 12.13 Triticale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 12.14 Maize for grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 12.15 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 13 Root crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 13.1 Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 13.2 Sugar beet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 13.3 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 14 Fresh harvested crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 14.1 Vegetable production on farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 14.2 Harvested fresh peas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 14.3 Broad beans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 14.4 Green beans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 14.5 Carrots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 14.6 Bulb onions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 14.7 Cabbages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 14.8 Brussels sprouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 14.9 Swedes (for the domestic market) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 14.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 15 Forage crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 15.1 Crops grown for their yield of roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 15.2 Crops grown for grazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 15.3 Crops grown for ensiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 15.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 16 Combinable break crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 16.2 Oilseed rape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

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