Localized Governance in the Midst of Anarchy

424 Pages·2012·19.21 MB·English

Localized Governance in the Midst of Anarchy:
The Role of Non-state Actors in Somalia's Nation-State Building
by
Idil Mohamed Salah (Ladane) -B.A. (Honours), M.A.
A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
Political Science
Carleton University
Ottawa, Ontario
©2011
Idil Salah
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ii
Abstract
This research explores alternative policies that can contribute to the revival of collapsed
states. Focusing on governance as a key factor to state rebuilding, it examines the roles
of non-state actors in nation-state rebuilding. The existing literature of the state has no
point of reference, pays little attention, and lacks an account of how actors proceed to
exercise power or how to reconstitute and return the power inherited by non-state actors
to the new state. Drawing on empirical evidence from the collapse of the Somali state in
1991, this study confirms that while non-state actors might contribute to the development
of social, economic, and political spheres, they create obstacles in the reconstruction of
the state.
Therefore, a key step in in anticipating the best approach to revive the state is to
understand the role of non-state actors within the context of local governance. Centering
the analysis on the role of non-state actors, the study interviewed 43 participants from
the public, the state, and non-state actors. The findings reveal that involuntary
decentralization from the national to the clan-based community level and evolving social
capital shaped the social, economic, and political governance that are taking root at
community and regional levels. To expand these developments to the national level
requires strengthening local governance institutions and improving partnerships between
the state and non-state actors. The state can take its power and legitimacy back by
resuming its managerial role while recognizing the contribution of non-state actors and
indigenous institutions. The study concludes that all state rebuilding efforts should
support advancing the emergence of a democratic state that respects and includes the
role of non-state actors.
iii
Acknowledgements
This work would not have been possible without the assistance of many people. I am
very grateful to all the participants who without hesitation opened their homes and offices
and shared their deepest disappointments, frustrations, fears, and hopes for Somalia's
future. I am also grateful to all the agencies that participated in this study, especially, the
Puntland Development Research Centre (PDRC), We are Women Activist (WAWA), and
the Galkacyo Education Center for Peace and Development. Their participation and
provision of useful material enriched this study.
I am also in debt to Her Excellency Ms. Ambassador Ebyan M. Salah, who continued
challenging some of my arguments, shared her knowledge as a Somali woman working
with the current Somali Transitional Federal Government, and understood the challenges
of Somalia's state-building.
I also want to thank my daughters Ayaan Musa, Aisha Ali, Maryan Ali, and Fowsia Ali
for their understanding and patience over the years. I deeply appreciate Fowsia's
assistance in the logistics of this research, such as printing the dissertation, photocopying
books, and borrowing them from the library, especially when I did not have the time
since I was a full time employee, a mother, and a student.
This thesis could not have been completed without the supervision of Professor Daniel
Osabu-Kle. Thank you for your constructive challenges, encouragement, patience and
ability to listen and direct me when needed. This study acknowledges his overall
commitment to the advancement of Africa's peace and development. I also thank
Professor Blair Rutherford and Professor Scott Bennett for their great feedback.
This thesis is dedicated to Suldan Esse Hassan and Ali Jama Bixi, participants of this
study who were gunned down by assassins in 2010 and 2008. They represent all the
Somalis who have died senseless deaths caused by the lawlessness in Somalia. May God
keep them all in peace and bring the evils that engineered the devastation in Somalia to
justice.
iv
Table of Contents
Abstract, ii
Acknowledgements ii}
Table of Contents xi
List of Tables yj
List of Appendices vjjj
Acronyms ix
Chapter 1. Introduction. A
Chapter 2. Overview of Somalia's Background: The Past Predicts the Future 22
2.1 Overview of Somali History and Culture. .22.
2.2 Colonial Legacy in Somalia: The Source of the Prolonged Conflict. .4.0.
2.3 Post-Independence Somali Governments: The Formation of Incompatible
Political Systems .4.7
Chapter 3. The Collapse of the Modern Somali State: A Case of Governance Failurea nd
Neglect of Indigenous Institutions, 6.7
3.1 The Root Causes of the Collapse of the Modern Somali State. .($>
3.2 The Negative Impacts of the Collapsed State: A Human Security Crisis .7.9.
Chapter 4. The State in Governance Perspectives: A Case of Failed State .1.03
4.1 The Modem State: Challenges in the 21 st Century JLQ4
4.2 The Causes of Collapsed States: A Case of Governance Predicament .1.14
4.3 Consequences and Impacts of Collapsed States .124
4.4 The Revival of the State: Getting it Right X27.
Chapter 5. Research Methodology: Significant Approach to Policy Research
on a Collapsed State .132
V
Chapter 6. Local Governance at the Disposal of Non-state Actors: Introduction,
Analysis, and Interpretation of Data from the Field. .1.42
6.1 Introduction: The Background of the Participants of the Research J.f>2
6.2 The Roles of Non-state Actors in Social, Economic and Peace-building
Developments: Perspectives from the Field. .185
6.2.1 Improving social governance: Crucial to state recovery ,12Q
6.2.2 Economic Governance: A bridge to peace and development 21Q
6.2.3 Peace Building at the Community Level: A Mirror to
Sustainable Local Governance. 231
Chapter 7. Nation-State Rebuilding in Somalia: Finding the Right Policy Approach 254
7.1 Peace-Building Conferences: A Weak Approach to Nation-State Rebuilding....^.
7.1.1 The Somali National Peace Conference, April 20-May 5,2000:
Civil society power on trial, 2.5.9.
7.1.2 The National Peace Conference in 2004: Federalism in the making 264
7.1.3 Somali National Reconciliation Congress (SNRC): July 15-August 30,
2007: A Conference for Nation-State Building 27.7.
7.2 Rebuilding Public Institutions in Somalia: Who Is Responsible? 28.3.
7.2.1 Reviving public institutions that promote the rule of law:
Enforcers of peace, order and development
7.2.2 Judiciary and justice systems: Enforcers of the rule of law and peace...293
7.3 State Rebuilding: A Case of Ending the Power-Struggle between the
State and Non-state Actors. 3.Q.7
7.3.1 The Preferred State: Opportunity for the Public to Weigh
Options for a Suitable Political System 2.0.9.
7.3.2 The Way Forward: The Realization of a Politically Compatible and
Autonomous State 3.1.&
Chapter 8. Making Local Governance Work: Lessons Learned from the Collapse and
the Rebuilding of the Somali State. 343
Bibliography
Appendices. 395
vi
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Somali Assemblies (Traditional) ,21
Table 2.2 Number of Schools and Students in the British Colony (1955/1960) .46
Table 2.3 Somali Government Expenditure in Selected Areas (in millions of US$) .5.0.
Table 2.4 Number of Students in Somalia during UN Trusteeship, 1952, 1959-60 .5.1.
Table 2.5 Number of Schools and Students at Different levels, 1966-1967 .5.1.
Table 2.6 Somalia: Foreign Aid Grants (1960-63) (in millions of US$) .5.3.
Table 2.7 Somalia: Loans Awarded (in millions of US$) .5.3.
Table 2.8 The Number of Schools and Students from 1969-1978 .5.7.
Table 2.9 Somali University: Student enrolled 1985-1986,1986-1987
Table 2.10 Distribution of Ownership of Choice Cultivatable Land, 1933 .61.
Table 2.11 Labor Force Participation of Somali Women .64.
Table 2.12 Level of Market Participation .6.5.
Table 3.1 Developments in Exchange Rate 1977-1998 (Somali shillings per US dollar)....7.8.
Table 4.1 Development Indicators for Collapsed and Failed States J.1.6
Table 4.2 Some of Africa's Most Destructive Wars in the 1980s and 1990s 1.2.6
Table 4.3 Governance Elements and Actors 1.3.1,
Table 5.1 Agencies and their Contribution to Local, National or Both Levels. 1.3.7,
Table 6.1 Breakdown of the Participants by Category 1.4.8,
Table 6.2 Graduated Police Officers in 2006-2007 1.8.0.
Table 6.3 Gross revenue from Charcoal Exports through Kismayo, El Maian,
and El Adde Seaports: January-April 2005 212.
Table 6.4 Revenue from Kismayo Seaport, January-April 2005 (US$) .21.3.
Table 6.5 Revenue from Kismayo Airport (US$) .21.4
Table 6.6 Phase 1 and Phase 2 of the Mediation Process of the Burtinle Peace Accord ..23.7.
Table 6.7 The Cost of Making Peace .23.8.
Table 6.8 The Roles of Non-state Actors in Peace Building 23J9.
Table 6.9 Intense Conflict between Sa'ad and Suleeyman Hawiye Sub-clans. .24.4.
Table 7.1 Summary of the Legal Aid Assistance through this Project 29.5.
Table 7.2 Increasing Demand of Legal Aid Services and Disproportionate Demands of
IDPs 293.
vii
Table 7.3 Highlights of Financial Statement of TFG in 2009 22.1.
Table 7.4 Disbursements, Unless Otherwise Stated in Millions of USD 32.7.
Table 7.5 Major Donors to Somalia between 2002 and 2008 (millions) 3.2.9
Table 7.6 Ten Major Donors to UNDP Somalia (2007-2009) (amounts in US$ 000) 3.3.0.
viii
List of Appendices
Appendix A: Map of Somalia 395
Appendix B: Map of INGOs presence in Somalia 396
Appendix C: Letter of Information and Consent Form 397
Appendix D: Research Questions 401
Appendix E: List of Participants 411
Appendix F: Map of Landmines in Somaliland and Puntland 413
ix
Acronyms
ARS Alliance for the Re-Liberation of Somalia
BPA Burtinle Peace Agreement
DRC Danish Refugee Council
GECPE Galkayo Education Centre for Peace and Development
IDPs Internally displaced people
INGOs International non-governmental organizations
LNGO Local non-governmental organization
MAI Muslim Aid International
MPA Mudug Peace Agreement
NGOs Non-governmental organizations
NSAs Non-state actors
PDRC Puntland Development and Research Center
PWENR Puntland Water Energy and Natural Resources
SNRC Somali National Reconciliation Congress
TFG Transitional Federal Government
TNG Transitional National Government
WAWA We are Women Activists Network
UIC Union of Islamic Court
UNCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNPOS United Nations Political Office for Somalia