Local food environments : food access in America

356 Pages·2015·8.107 MB·English

by  Kimberly B Morland

LOCAL FOOD
ENVIRONMENTS
FOOD ACCESS IN AMERICA

LOCAL FOOD
ENVIRONMENTS
FOOD ACCESS IN AMERICA
EDITED BY KIMBERLY B. MORLAND

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Contents
Foreword ...................................................................................................................xi
Preface .....................................................................................................................xv
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................xix
Editor ......................................................................................................................xxi
Contributors .........................................................................................................xxiii
Section i introduction and contextualizing
the Local Food environment into the
American Food System
Chapter 1 Introduction ..........................................................................................3
Kimberly B. Morland
Defining Local Food Environments .....................................................4
Food Retailing in the United States .....................................................8
Food Consumption Trends in the United States .................................13
Hunger and Obesity in the United States ......................................17
Conceptual Models and Local Food Environments ...........................20
Factors Involved in Obtaining Food, Physical Activity, and
Disease Development ....................................................................20
Causation in Local Food Environment Studies .............................22
References ..........................................................................................26
Chapter 2 U.S. Agricultural Policies and the U.S. Food Industry:
Production to Retail............................................................................29
Arlene Spark
U.S. Government Oversight of Agriculture........................................29
Food Industry Lobby .....................................................................29
U.S. Department of Agriculture ....................................................31
U.S. Farm Bill ....................................................................................31
Naming and Titles of the U.S. Farm Bills .....................................32
New Farm Bill Signed into Law in 2014 .......................................34
Overview and History of the Farm Bill .............................................35
U.S. Commodity Crops and Subsidies ..........................................36
Commodity Crops and Subsidies Result in “Cheap Food” ...........36
Commodity Foods and USDA Nutrition Programs ......................38
Imports and Exports ......................................................................42
v
vi Contents
Specialty Crops ..............................................................................44
Strategic Initiatives ........................................................................46
Crop Insurance ..............................................................................46
Healthy Food Financing Initiative .................................................48
Other Federal Agencies with Authority on the U.S.
Food System ..................................................................................51
U.S. Food Industry .............................................................................53
Consolidation of the U.S. Food Industry .......................................53
References ..........................................................................................58
Chapter 3 Environmental Injustice Connects Local Food Environments
with Global Food Production .............................................................63
Steve Wing
Environmental Injustice and Industrial Food Production ..................64
Industrial Farm Animal Production ...................................................66
Health Effects of Industrial Hog Operations .................................69
Health Effects of Industrial Animal Production Extend
Beyond Local Communities ..........................................................78
Economic, Social, and Political Impacts of Industrial Animal
Production ..........................................................................................79
References ..........................................................................................82
Section ii Local Food environments: Research,
Methods, and Analytical issues
Chapter 4 Geography of Local Food Environments: People and Places ............87
Kimberly B. Morland
Environmental versus Individual Causes of Disease .........................89
Racial Segregation in the United States .............................................90
Segregation and Area Resources ........................................................92
Developing a Conceptual Model ........................................................94
Measuring the Effects of Local Food Environment to
Target Interventions .......................................................................94
Simplified Causal Pathways ..........................................................95
Measurement of Geographic Boundaries of Local Food
Environments .....................................................................................96
Assigning Exposure and Types of Boundaries ..............................97
Measurement of Food Availability ...................................................104
Presence of Stores/Restaurants ...................................................104
Types of Food Stores/Restaurants ...............................................106
Content of Stores/Restaurants .....................................................107
Contents vii
Evidence of Disparities in Access to Healthy Foods in the
United States (1997–2013) ................................................................107
References ........................................................................................117
Chapter 5 Local Food Environments and Dietary Intake .................................121
Barbara A. Laraia, Bethany Hendrickson, and Yun T. Zhang
Diet and Health ................................................................................123
Measuring Diet for Local Food Environment Research ..................127
24-Hour Recall ............................................................................128
Food Frequency Questionnaires ..................................................131
Brief Dietary Screeners ...............................................................132
Food Environment Measures and Methods .....................................132
Association Between Diet and Food Prices and Quality .................152
Food Prices ..................................................................................152
Quality of Produce ......................................................................152
School Environment .........................................................................153
External School Environment ..........................................................155
Summary and Conclusions ...............................................................157
References ........................................................................................158
Chapter 6 Local Food Environments and Diet-Related Health Outcomes:
A Systematic Review of Local Food Environments, Body
Weight, and Other Diet-Related Health Outcomes ..........................167
Shannon N. Zenk, Esther Thatcher, Margarita Reina, and
Angela Odoms-Young
Causal Conceptual Model ................................................................171
Study Selection .................................................................................173
Summary of Study Findings ........................................................174
Methods Overview ......................................................................174
Evidence for Body Weight by Age ...................................................184
Adults...........................................................................................184
Children or Adolescents ..............................................................187
Supermarkets and Obesity, Adults 2006–2012 ...........................188
Evidence for Other Health Outcomes ..............................................189
Discussion.........................................................................................189
Limitations...................................................................................190
Implications for Policy and Other Interventions .........................191
Implications for Future Research ................................................192
Conclusions ......................................................................................196
References ........................................................................................197
viii Contents
Chapter 7 Measurement and Analytical Issues Involved in the Estimation
of the Effects of Local Food Environments on Health Behaviors
and Health Outcomes .......................................................................205
Latetia V. Moore and Ana V. Diez-Roux
Conceptual Models ...........................................................................206
Study Design ....................................................................................206
Experimental Studies ..................................................................207
Observational Studies ..................................................................208
Natural or Quasi Experiments .....................................................209
Measurement of the Local Food Environment ................................210
Theoretically Relevant Local Food Environment Features ........210
Spatial Scale ................................................................................212
Data Sources Used to Characterize Local Food
Environments ...............................................................................213
Analytical Issues ..............................................................................218
Measurement Error in Exposure and Outcome ...........................218
Accounting for Confounding at the Area and Individual
Levels ...........................................................................................222
Effect Modification ......................................................................223
Time Lags and Time-Dependent Confounding ...........................224
Reverse Causation and Dynamic Relations .................................225
References ........................................................................................226
Chapter 8 Local Food Environments Outside of the United States—A Look
to the North: Examining Food Environments in Canada ................231
Jennifer Black
Introduction to Local Food Environments in Canada......................231
Brief Overview of Canadian Geography, Agriculture, and
Food System Issues......................................................................232
Nutrition-Related Health Outcomes in Canada ...........................234
Local Food Environment Research in Canada ................................236
Where Has Local Food Environment Research Been
Conducted in Canada and at What Scale? ...................................236
Evidence of Geographic Variation in Obesity .............................237
Geographic Variation and Local Food Environments
Characteristics .............................................................................244
Food Retailing in Canada ................................................................246
Availability of Supermarkets, Grocery Stores, and Access to
Nutritious Food in Canada ..........................................................246
Summary of Insights from the Canadian Literature ........................256
Key Remaining Gaps in the Canadian Literature .......................258
Conclusions ......................................................................................260
Appendix ..........................................................................................261
References ........................................................................................261
Contents ix
Section iii M oving Forward: Local Food
environment now and in the Future
Chapter 9 State-Level Interventions: Pennsylvania’s Fresh Food
Financing Initiative ..........................................................................273
Yael Lehmann, April White, Jordan Tucker, and Allison Karpyn
Importance of Supermarkets ............................................................274
Origins of the Grocery Gap .........................................................274
Impacts of the Grocery Gap ........................................................275
Supermarket Campaign in Pennsylvania .........................................277
Establishment of the Food Trust ..................................................277
Advocating for Supermarkets ......................................................278
Creation and Implementation of Pennsylvania’s Fresh Food
Financing Initiative ..........................................................................282
Structuring the Initiative .............................................................282
Marketing the Initiative ...............................................................283
Determining Eligibility ...............................................................284
Impacts of Pennsylvania’s Fresh Food Financing Initiative .............285
Scaling Up: Replication of the Food Trust Framework and
Pennsylvania’s Fresh Food Financing Initiative ...............................286
Phase 1: Prepare and Inform .......................................................287
Phase 2: Engage and Empower Stakeholders ..............................288
Phase 3: Strategize and Develop Recommendations ...................290
Phase 4: Change Policy ...............................................................290
Phase 5: Implementation..............................................................291
Comprehensive Approach to Improving Food Access .....................292
References ........................................................................................293
Chapter 10 Ecological Approaches to Creating Healthy Local Food
Environments in the United States: Push and Pull Forces ...............297
Carol M. Devine and Jennifer L. Wilkins

Objectives .........................................................................................298
Approach and Definitions ............................................................298
Ecological Framework: Multiple Levels of Action ..........................299
Multilevel Embeddedness of Local Food Access .......................301
Push–Pull Interactions within and between Levels of an
Ecological Framework .................................................................303
Multiple Pathways to Local Food Access ....................................303
Food System Intersections within an Ecological
Framework ...................................................................................304
Approaches to Increasing Community Food Access .......................304
Educational and Skill-Building Approaches ...............................305
Social Marketing Approaches .....................................................305
x Contents
Direct-to-Consumer Approaches .................................................306
Healthy Retail and Direct-to-Retail or Institutional
Approaches ..................................................................................306
Transportation Approaches .........................................................308
Economic Approaches .................................................................308
Planning and Economic Development Approaches ....................309
Surveillance and Research Needs ....................................................310
Going Further ...................................................................................311
References ........................................................................................311
Index ......................................................................................................................317