Local Elite Adjustment in Indonesia's Democratization

313 Pages·2017·2.57 MB·English

Local Elite Adjustment in Indonesia’s
Democratization:
Case Studies of North Sumatra and East Java,
1998-2013

Inaugural-Dissertation
zur
Erlangung der Doktorwürde
der Philosophischen Fakultät
der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität
Freiburg i. Br.

vorgelegt von
Panji Anugrah Permana
Aus Sukabumi, Indonesien
SS 2017
Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Jürgen Rüland
Zweitgutachter: Prof. Dr. Judith Schlehe

Vorsitzender des Promotionsausschusses: Prof. Dr. Andreas Mehler
Der Gemeinsamen Kommission der Philologischen,
Philosophischen und Wirtschafts- und
Verhaltenswissenschaftlichen Fakultät: Prof. Dr. Hans-Helmuth Gander

Datum der Fachprüfung im Promotionsfach: 11.07.2017
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page ........................................................................................................................................... i
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... iii
List of Table ............................................................................................................................. v
List of Figure ............................................................................................................................ v
Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... vi
Chapter One Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
Chapter Two ............................................................................................................................... 7
Theory and Methodology ........................................................................................................... 7
I. Theoretical Premises ..................................................................................................................... 7
A. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 7
B. The Structuralist Approach ......................................................................................................... 7
Elite and democratization studies ................................................................................ 11
Structuralism and democratization studies in Indonesia ............................................. 12
C. The Actor-Centered Approach ................................................................................................. 14
Elite and democratization studies ................................................................................ 17
Elites and democratization studies in Indonesia .......................................................... 19
D. The Ideational Approach .......................................................................................................... 21
Ideas and democratization studies ............................................................................... 22
Democratization studies in Indonesia: Bringing ideas in ............................................ 23
Enlisting the cultural turn for elite studies in Indonesia .............................................. 25
E. Eclectic Theorizing in Elite Analyses ...................................................................................... 27
F. Research Arguments ................................................................................................................. 29
II. Methodology and Research Techniques ..................................................................................... 30
A. Comparative Case Study Method and Process Tracing Analysis ............................................. 30
B. The Cases .................................................................................................................................. 34
C. Research Techniques ................................................................................................................ 37
Chapter Three ........................................................................................................................... 40
Politics in Indonesia: Structure, Actors and Ideas .................................................................... 40
I. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 40
II. Trajectories of Political Order in Indonesia: Institutional Structure, Actor Strategies and Ideas . 42
A. Parliamentary Democracy (1950-1957) ................................................................................... 42
B. “Guided Democracy” (1957-1965) .......................................................................................... 48
C. The New Order (1965/1966-1998) ........................................................................................... 50
D. The post-New Order Era: Bringing Democracy Back In ......................................................... 58
1. Habibie’s Reforms ................................................................................................... 59
2. Constitutional Amendments ..................................................................................... 61
3. Decentralization Reform in 1999: Deconstructing the Myth of Unitarism ............. 63
4. Revision of the Decentralization Policy in 2004 and Direct Local Elections ......... 66
III. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 68
Chapter Four Elites and Democratization in North Sumatra ................................................... 71
I. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 71
II. Elite and Institutional Structure ..................................................................................................... 71
A. Socio-Economic Conditions and Historical Background ......................................................... 71
B. Institutional Dynamics of Local Political Power: Parties and Elections .................................. 75
1. General Elections ..................................................................................................... 75
2. Local Elections ........................................................................................................ 81
3. Elite Configuration: Old and New Elites ............................................................... 100
III. Elite and Strategic Actions towards Democratization ............................................................... 107
A. Local Elections and Transactional Politics ............................................................................. 111
B. Elite Networks and Alliance Building .................................................................................... 116
1. Party Networks and National Elites Networks ...................................................... 116
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2. Ethnic and Religious Politics ................................................................................. 122
3. Patronage and Personal Networks ......................................................................... 131
4. The Hobbesian Nature of Inter-Elite Competition ................................................ 137
IV. Elite and Ideational Contestation .............................................................................................. 144
A. Proximity to the People .......................................................................................................... 144
B. The Rise of Oppositional Ideas .............................................................................................. 153
C. External Challenge and Elite Perception: Local Elites as Ideational Carriers and Barriers ... 157
V. Conclusion: Tracing the Process of Elite Adjustment in North Sumatra .................................. 168
Chapter Five Elite and Democratization in East Java ............................................................ 172
I. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 172
II. Elite and Institutional Context .................................................................................................... 172
A. Socio-Economic Condition..................................................................................................... 172
B. The Dynamics of Local Political Power: Parties and Elections ............................................. 174
1. General Elections ................................................................................................... 174
2. Local Elections ...................................................................................................... 181
C. Elite Continuity ...................................................................................................................... 200
III. Elite and Strategic Actions towards Democratization ............................................................... 206
A. Political Networks: Local Elites and Three Political Machines ............................................. 209
B. Personal Networks: Friends and Alliances ............................................................................. 214
C. Party Networks: Inclusion and Accommodation .................................................................... 220
D. Elite Cunning, Money Politics, and Political Corruption ....................................................... 227
IV. Elite and Ideational Structures .................................................................................................. 231
A. The Traditional Javanese Ideas of Stability and Harmony ..................................................... 231
B. The Bureaucratic Politician .................................................................................................... 234
C. Elite Resistance towards Liberal Democratic Ideas and Elite Perception towards Political
Reforms ....................................................................................................................................... 236
D. The Outsiders and Oppositional Ideas .................................................................................... 241
V. Conclusion: Tracing the Process of Elite Adjustment in East Java .......................................... 248
Chapter Six Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 253
I. Comparative Analyses: Similarities, Differences, and General Patterns .................................. 254
II. Understanding Elite Adjustment in Democratic Transition ...................................................... 260
Zussamenfassung .................................................................................................................... 265
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 267
Appendix ................................................................................................................................ 301
(List of Interviewees) ............................................................................................................. 301

iv
LIST OF TABLE

Tabel 2. 1 Distribution of Interviewees................................................................................ 38
Table 4. 1 The Result of 1955 General Election at the National and North Sumatra .......... 76
Table 4. 2 The Results of the 1971 General Election at the National Level and in North
Sumatra (in percent) ............................................................................................ 77
Table 4. 3 The Results of the New Order’s General Elections at the National Level and in
North Sumatran (in percent) ............................................................................... 78
Table 4. 4 Results of General Elections in Post New Order Era at the National and North
Sumatra (by percent of popular vote) ................................................................. 79
Table 4. 5 Local Elections in North Sumatra and Medan, 1998-2010 ................................. 82
Table 4. 6 Candidates, Parties and Result of Gubernatorial Election in 2008 ..................... 94
Table 4. 7 Backgrounds of Candidates in Gubernatorial Elections ................................... 118
Table 4. 8 The Position of Political Parties in the Gubernatorial Elections ....................... 120
Table 4. 9 Ethnic and Religious Background of Candidates in Gubernatorial Election ... 124
Table 5. 1 The Result of 1955 General Election, National Level and East Java ............... 175
Table 5. 2 The Results of 1971 General Election, National Level and East Java .............. 176
Table 5. 3 The Results of The New Order’s General Election, National Level and
East Java (in percent) ........................................................................................ 178
Table 5. 4 Results of the General Elections in the Post-New Order Era, National Level
and East Java (by percent of popular vote ........................................................ 180
Table 5. 5 Composition of Political Parties/ Factions in the Provincial Legislature in the
Gubernatorial Election of 1998 ......................................................................... 182
Table 5. 6 The Results of the Gubernatorial Election of 1998 ........................................... 183
Table 5. 7 Composition of Political Parties/ Factions in the Provincial Legislature in the
Gubernatorial Election of 2003 ......................................................................... 185
Table 5. 8 The Result of the Gubernatorial Election of 2003 ............................................ 186
Table 5. 9 The Results of the Gubernatorial Election of 2008 (in percent) ....................... 193
Table 5. 10 The Results of the Mayoral Election of Surabaya in 2000 ............................... 195
Table 5. 11 The Results of the Mayoral Election of Surabaya in 2005 (in percent) ............ 197
Table 5. 12 The Results of the Mayoral Election of Surabaya in 2010 (in percent) ............ 200

LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 2.1 Causal factors and outcome .................................................................................... 30
Figure 2. 2 Periodization and Major Events of Local Elite Adjustment in North Sumatra and
East Java 1998-2013 ................................................................................................................. 34
Figure 4. 1 The Result of 2008 Gubernatorial Election (based on regions) ........................... 126
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GLOSSARY

abangan nominal Islam, syncretic Islam
ABRI Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia, the Indonesian
Armed Forces
adat tradition, custom
aliran stream
among roso managing the sense
AMPI Angkatan Muda Pembaharuan Indonesia, Indonesian
Development Generation of Youth
APBD Anggaran Pendapatan dan Belanja Daerah (Local
Government Revenue and Expenditure), local government
budget
Banpres Bantuan Presiden, Presidential Grants
Bapak Pembangunan Father of Development, credit for President Soeharto
Bappeda Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah, Regional
Development Planning Agency
Bappenas Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional (National
Development Planning Agency)
batik traditional cloth of Indonesian
Bhineka Tunggal Ika Unity in Diversity, Indonesian local beliefs
BIA Badan Intelijen ABRI, ABRI Intelligence Agency
BMS Baptist Mission Society, British Missionaries
BPK Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan, State Audit Agency
BPS Badan Pusat Statistik, Central Statistics Agency
BPUPKI Badan Penyelidik Usaha-Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan
Indonesia, the Investigatory Committee for the Independence
Indonesia
BPWS Badan Pengembangan Wilayah Surabaya-Madura, Regional
Development of Surabaya-Madura
brengos Javanese’s name for moustache
Cakrabirawa Regiment Bodyguard to the President in Soekarno Era
calon dropping Centrally-ordered candidates
calon pendamping Supplemental/ accessorial candidates
CEPU Block One nationwide biggest contributor of oil, located in East
Java
Daerah pesisir barat West Coast regions
Daerah pesisir timur East Coast regions
dakwah proselytization/ missionary
desa village
Dewan Nasional National Council, established in the Guided Democracy era
Dewan Syuro Supreme/ Advisory Board
Dewan Tanfidz Executive Board
Dispenda Dinas Pendapatan Daerah, Revenue Service Office
DM-USU Dewan Mahasiswa Universitas Sumatra Utara, the Presidium
of the Student Council of the University of North Sumatra
DPA Dewan Pertimbangan Agung, Supreme Advisory Council
DPC Dewan Pimpinan Cabang, district board of political parties
DPD Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, Regional Representative Council
DPD Dewan Pimpinan Daerah, regional board of political parties
vi
DPP Dewan Pimpinan Pusat, central board of political parties
DPR Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, People’s Representative Council
DPRD Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, Regional People’s
Representative Council, regional legislature
DPR-GR Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat-Gotong Royong, Gotong Royong
Parliament
DPT Daftar Pemilih Tetap, fixed voter list
DPW Dewan Pimpinan Wilayah, regional board of political parties
DRD Dewan Riset Daerah, Provincial Research Council
Dwi fungsi ABRI The doctrine of the military dual functions, in defense and
politics
Era reformasi Reform era, Post New Order Era
FKPMJSU Forum Komunikasi Pemuda dan Mahasiswa Jakarta-Sumatra
Utara (the Forum of Communication of the Youth and
Students of Jakarta-North Sumatra)
GAPENSI Gabungan Pelaksana Konstruksi Nasional Indonesia,
Indonesian National Contractors’ Association
gawe karyo work and cooperation
Gerakan Pemuda Ansor Ansor Youth Movement
GMNI Gerakan Mahasiswa Nasional Indonesian, National Student
Movement of Indonesia
Golkar Golongan Karya, Functional Group, the state political party
under the New Order, and one of the post-New Order party
golput Golongan Putih, a boycott movement in New Order’s general
elections
gotong royong mutual cooperation, mutual assistance
Guided Democracy the Sukarno Era, 1957-1966
HIPMI Himpunan Pengusaha Muda Indonesia, Indonesian Young
Entrepreneurs Association
HIPPI Himpunan Pengusaha Pribumi Indonesia, Indonesian
Indigenous Businessmen’s Association
HMI Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam, Islamic University Students
Association
ICIS International Conference of Islamic Scholars
ICMI Ikatan Cendikiawan Muslim Indonesia, Association of
Indonesian Muslim Scholars
IKA-GMNI Ikatan Alumni Gerakan Mahasiswa Nasional Indonesia,
Association of Alumni of National Student Movement of
Indonesia
IKOPI Asosiasi Koperasi Pribumi, Indigenous Cooperative
Association
IMF International Monetary Fund
Inpres Instruksi Presiden, Presidential Instruction
IPKI Ikatan Pendukung Kemerdekaan Indonesia, the League of
Supporters of Indonesian Independence
ITB Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung Technology Institute
ITS Institut Teknologi Sepuluh November, Sepuluh November
Institute of Technology
Jadel Jawa Deli, Javanese-Deli
jakon Jawa Kontrak, Javanese contract workers
Jalinkesra Jalan Lain Menuju Kesejahteraan, Another Way to People
vii
Welfare
JLS Jalur Lingkar Selatan, South Ring Road Highway
kabupaten district, regency
KADIN Kamar Dagang dan Industri, Indonesian Chamber of
Commerce and Industry
KAHMI Kesatuan Alumni Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam, Alumni of
Islamic University Students Association
kajati Kepala Kejaksaan Tinggi, High Attorney at the Province
kampung kampong, rural area
Kapolda Kepala Kepolisian Daerah, Chief of Provincial Police
KASDAM Kepala Staf Daerah Militer, Chief of Army Regional Staff
kawulo-gusti The relationship between the people and their leaders
kecamatan Sub-district
kepala desa village headmen
kepala dinas Head of province/ district level office
keterbukaan Opening
khittah Basic mission of NU in religious and social activities
KNPI Komite Nasional Pemuda Indonesia, National Committee of
Indonesian Youth
Kodiklat ABRI Komando Pendidikan dan Latihan ABRI, Indonesian Army of
Education and Training Command
konfrontasi Confrontation
konstituante Constitutional assembly
kopiah Moslem cap
KORPRI Korp Pegawai Negeri Republik Indonesia, the Indonesian
Civil Service Corps
KOSTRAD Komando Cadangan Strategis TNI-Angkatan Darat, the
Army’s Strategic Reserve Force
kota Municipality
KPK Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi, Corruption Eradication
Commission
KPU Komisi Pemilihan Umum, General Elections Commission
KPUD Komisi Pemilihan Umum Daerah, Regional General Elections
Commission
KSAD Kepala Staf Angkatan Darat, the Army Chief of Staff
KY Komisi Yudisial, Judicial Commission
kyai religious teacher, in NU tradition
LIPI Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, Indonesian Science
Institute)
LSI Lembaga Survey Indonesia, Indonesian Survey Institute
LSN Lembaga Survey Nasional, National Survey Institute
LSPERS Lembaga Studi Perubahan Sosial, Study Group for Social
Change
MA Mahkamah Agung, Supreme Court
MABES ABRI Markas Besar ABRI, the Indonesian Army Headquarters
MABMI Majelis Adat Budaya Melayu Indonesia, Malay Cultural and
Customary Council)
Malari Malapetaka Lima Belas Januari, January Disaster, student
protest towards the New Order in 1974.
malu shyness
manunggaling kawulo gusti the unity of the leader and people
viii
marga clan/ kinship group in North Sumatra
Masyumi Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia, Consultative Council of
Indonesian Muslim, party with Islamic modernist orientation,
the second largest party in the 1950s
MK Mahkamah Konstitusi, Constitutional Court
monoloyalitas mono loyalty, the loyalty of civil servant (bureaucracy) to
Golkar (state party) in the New Order Era
MPI Masyarakat Pancasila Indonesia, Community for Indonesian
Pancasila
MPM Mahasiswa Pancasila Medan, Student Association of
Pancasila
MPR Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, People’s Consultative
Assembly
MPRS Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Sementara, the Provisional
People’s Consultative Assembly
Munas Musyawarah Nasional, national party meeting
Musdalub Musyawarah Daerah Luar Biasa, (Extraordinary Regional
Party Congress)
Musrenbang Musyawarah Rencana Pembangunan, Deliberation Panning
of Development
musyawarah mufakat Mutual consultation
nasakom Nasionalis Agama Komunis, Nationalist-Religion-
Communist, a syncretic political jargon in Soekarno Era
New Order the Soeharto Era, 1966-1998
noto roso controlling the sense
NST Negara Sumatra Timur, State of East Sumatra
NU Nahdlatul Ulama, the Awakening of Traditional Religious
Scholars and Teachers, Indonesia’s largest traditionalist
Islamic organization
P2SEM Program Penanganan Sosial Ekonomi Masyarakat, Socio-
Economic Community Treatment Program
PAD Pendapatan Asli Daerah, locally-generated revenue
pakde Javanese’s name for uncle
PAN Partai Amanat Nasional, National Mandate Party
Pancasila the five guiding principle of the Indonesian state
Pancasila Democracy The political system of the New Order
Pangab Panglima ABRI, Commander in Chief of ABRI
Pangdam Panglima Daerah Militer, Regional Military Commander
Parkindo Partai Kristen Indonesia, Indonesian Christian Party
Parliamentary Democracy the era of liberal democracy in Indonesia, 1950-1957
Parmusi Partai Muslimin Indonesia, Indonesian Muslim Party
Partai Gerindra Partai Gerakan Indonesia Raya, Greater Indonesia
Movement Party, led by Prabowo Subianto
Partai Hanura Partai Hati Nurani Rakyat, People’s Conscience Party, led by
Wiranto
Partai Murba Proletarian/ socialist party
pasangan pelangi Rainbow pairs
PBB Partai Bulan Bintang, Crescent Moon and Star Party
PBR Partai Bintang Reformasi, Star Reform Party
PBSD Partai Buruh Sosial Demokrat, Social Democratic Labour
Party
ix
PCD Partai Cinta Damai, Peace and Love Party
PD Partai Demokrat, Democrat Party, party founded and led by
President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
PDI Partai Demokrasi Indonesia, Indonesian Democracy Party,
one of political parties in the New Order, the party from
which the PDI-P split in 1997
PDI-P Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan, Indonesian
Democratic Party Struggle, party led by Megawati
Sukarnoputri
PDS Partai Damai Sejahtera, Prosperous Peace Party
Pembaruan dan pembauran Renewal and assimilation
pemekaran Regional proliferation
Perti Partai Pergerakan Tarbiyah Islam, Islamic Education
Movement Party
pesantren Islamic boarding schools
Pesindo Pemuda Sosialis Indonesia, Indonesian Youth Socialist
Piagam Jakarta Jakarta Charter
PIB Partai Perhimpunan Indonesia Baru, New Indonesia Alliance
Party
PKB Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa, National Awakening Party
PKI Partai Komunis Indonesia, Indonesian Communist Party
PKNU Partai Kebangkitan Nasional Ulama, Ulema National
Awakening Party
PKPB Partai Karya Peduli Bangsa, Concern for the Nation
Functional Group Party
PKPI Partai Keadilan dan Persatuan Indonesia, Indonesian Justice
and Unity Party
PKS Partai Keadilan Sejahtera, Prosperous and Justice Party
PNBK Partai Nasional Banteng Kemerdekaan, Freedom Bull
National Party,
PNI Partai Nasionalis Indonesia, Indonesian Nationalist Party,
founded by President Soekarno in 1920s
PNI-Marhaen Partai Nasional Indonesia Marhaen, Indonesian National
Party-Marhaen
PNS Pegawai Negeri Sipil, civil servants
POLRI Kepolisian Republik Indonesia, Indonesian National Police
PP Pemuda Pancasila, Pancasila Youth
PPDI Partai Penegak Demokrasi Indonesia, Indonesian Democratic
Vanguard Party
PPDK Partai Persatuan Demokrasi Kebangsaan, United Democratic
Nationhood Party
PPK Panitia Pemilihan Kecamatan, Sub-District Electoral
Commission
PPKI Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia, the Independence
Preparatory Committee
PPNU Partai Persatuan Nahdlatul Ummah, United of Nahdlatul
Ummah Party,
PPP Partai Persatuan Pembangunan, United Development Party
protap Provinsi Tapanuli, the Province of Tapanuli
PRRI Pemerintahan Revolusioner Republik Indonesia, the
Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia
x