Living Marine Resources: Their Utilization and Management

410 Pages·1996·12.246 MB·English

by  Edwin S. Iversen (auth.)

..
,;:
. ~ .".
Living Marine
Resources
until hold rcial
s e me
kh
ctm
blonto Co
en e iof
drivseineau
wer-rse Bur
u
h pohe pU.S.
witm tsy
at rorte
bod fou
ne peo c
eimot
suh
each hen pnt. P
ard is tpla
oh n
bco
d acatcti
ulehe edu
aTr
e net is hhe bunt. rt to the
hto
ner set. Tonfined in for transp
purse-seiclosely cer vessel
-Ii Menhaden the fish are of the carriFisheries.
Edwin S. Iversen
Rosenstiel School of Marine
and Atmospheric Science
University of Mjami
Miami, Florida
Living Mart
Resources
Their Utilization
and ManaQetnent
m
CHAPMAN & HALL
New York· Alb:lny • Bonn· Boston· Cincinnati · Detroit
London • ~'iadrid • Melbourne· Mexico City· Pacific Grove
Paris • San Francisco· Singapore· Tokyo • Toronto • WaShington
Cover photo: A salmon purse seine is retrieved using a power block.
Courtesy Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute.
Cover design: Curtis Tow Graphics
Copyright © 1996 by Chapman & Hall
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1996
Chapman & Hall Chapman & Hall
115 Fifth Avenue 2-6 Boundary Row
New York, NY 10003 London SE1 8HN
England
Thomas Nelson Australia Chapman & Hall GmbH
102 Dodds Street Postfach 100 263
South Melbourne, 3205 0-69442 Weinheim
Victoria, Australia Germany
Nelson Canada International Thomson Publishing Asia
1120 Birchmount Road 221 Henderson Road #05-10
Scarborough, Ontario Henderson Building
Canada M1K 5G4 Singapore 0315
International Thomson Editores International Thomson Publishing-Japan
Campos Eliseos 385, Piso 7 Hirakawacho-cho Kyowa Building, 3F
Col. Polanco 1-2-1 Hirakawacho-cho
11560 Mexico D.E Chiyoda-ku, 102 Tokyo
Mexico Japan
All rights reserved. No part of this book covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or
used in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems-without the written permission of
the publisher.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 XXX 01 00 99 98 97 96
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Iversen, Edwin S.
Living marine resources: their utilization and management / Edwin
S. Iversen
p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-8513-7 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-1211-6
001: 10.1007/978-1-4613-1211-6
1. Fisheries. 2. Marine resources. 3. Fishery management.
I. Title.
SH331.194 1996
338.3'727--dc20 96-16566
CIP
To order this or any other Chapman & Hall book, please contact International Thomson
Publishing, 7625 Empire Drive, Florence, KY 41042. Phone: [phone] or 1-800-842-3636.
Fax: [phone]. e-mail: [email protected].
For a complete listing of Chapman & Hall titles, send your request to Chapman & Hall, Dept. BC,
115 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003.
This book is dedicated
to the memory of Donald L. McKernan, friend and colleague,
in recognition of his enormous contribution
to national and international fisheries
CONTENTS
Preface ix
Introduction xi
PART ONE LIVING RESOURCES: THEIR HABITATS AND FISHERIES 1
Chapter 1 OCEAN ENVIRONMENT 3
Chapter 2 MAJOR RESOURCE ORGANISMS-PLANTS AND INVERTEBRATES 27
Chapter 3 MAJOR RESOURCE ORGANISMS-VERTEBRATES 44
Chapter 4 LIFE HISTORIES OF RESOURCE SPECIES 62
Chapter 5 AGE AND GROWTH OF RESOURCE SPECIES 81
PART Two FISHERIES BIOLOGY 103
Chapter 6 FISH AND SHELLFISH BEHAVIOR 105
Chapter 7 POPULATION SIZE AND FLUCTUATIONS 127
PART THREE FISHERIES: GEAR, METHODS, AND LANDINGS 147
Chapter 8 FISHING VESSELS, GEAR, AND METHODS 149
Chapter 9 FOOD AND NONFOOD FISHERIES 176
Chapter 10 MAJOR WORLD FISHING NATIONS 205
Chapter 11 SEA FARMING (AQUACULTURE) 222
vii
viii Contents
PART FOUR FISHERIES MANAGEMENT AND REGULATION 239
Chapter 12 MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES 241
Chapter 13 FISHERIES MANAGEMENT-ENVIRONMENTAL MANIPULATIONS 261
Chapter 14 FISHERIES MANAGEMENT-LAWS AND REGULATIONS 285
Chapter 15 FUTURE OF WORLD COMMERCIAL FISHERIES 311
PART FIVE RECREATIONAL FISHERIES 331
Chapter 16 RECREATIONAL FISHERMEN, RESOURCES, GEAR, AND VALUE 333
Chapter 17 RECREATIONAL FISHERIES BIOLOGY 350
Chapter 18 RECREATIONAL FISHERIES MANAGEMENT 362
Chapter 19 FUTURE OF RECREATIONAL FISHERIES 381
ApPENDICES
Appendix A Selected General References 389
Appendix B The Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act 393
Subject Index 397
PREFACE
Although there is voluminous literature on the subjects covered in this book, I have tried to
summarize the main points of each subject that will helpful to the reader. This book is di
vided into five major parts. Part One, Ocean Environment and Resource Species, is organ
ized so that the reader will understand enough about the ocean environment and kinds of
renewable resources to appreciate fishing methods and fisheries management as described in
subsequent chapters. Space does not permit them to be covered in detail in this volume. A
basic knowledge of the ocean environment is presupposed, and here only those aspects of the
oceans most important to fisheries are reviewed. The uneven distribution of living resources
in the sea is discussed together with reasons for differences in ocean productivity in different
regions, and the importance of seafood in the world's economy.
Humankind can reap the greatest return from the sea harvest without exceeding its carrying
capacity only if we wisely manage the stocks of fish and shellfish in the sea. Many aspects of
the material in Part Two, Fisheries Biology, age, growth, fecundity, mortality, etc., must be un
derstood to assist in the efficient harvesting of seafood and to serve as background information
for stock management. With this knowledge in hand the student can appreciate yield models
designed to give estimates of maximum sustainable yield and maximum economic yield from
the sea. Therefore, in Part Two, biological aspects of fish and shellfish populations necessary
for management are described as to how they are studied and applied to management.
Part Three, Fisheries: Gear, Methods, and Landings, covers the history of fishing and vari
ous kinds of vessels and gear. The special requirements of handling and processing seafood,
and the problems with improper handing and naturally toxic seafood are discussed. The large
nonfood (industrial or reduction) fisheries are documented here. Major fishing nations of the
world based on weights of commercial landings are reviewed together with the characteristics
that contribute to their emphasis on fishing. The potential production of world fisheries is
reviewed. Sea farming makes a contribution to the world's food supply; although presently
small in comparison to that of the capture fisheries, it is predicted to continue to grow. The
reasons for this, typical species reared, and problems in the industry are discussed in this part.
In Part Four, Fisheries Management and Regulations, basic yield models are given to in
troduce the student to theory on population dynamics, stock assessment, and management.
Advanced models can be found in the references at the end of the book. Management by en
vironmental manipulations and regulations are discussed, and examples of management
plans for shellfish, finfish, mammals, and reptiles are given. While the book is worldwide in
scope, emphasis is on U.S. fisheries. Management problems and techniques, however, are
similar in other fisheries around the world. Objectives of biological and economic fisheries
ix
x Preface
management are discussed together with forecasting abundance as a service to industry and
to prevent overfishing. The last chapter on commercial fisheries discusses the future of com
mercial fisheries of the world.
Part Five, Recreational Fisheries, profiles recreational fishermen and gives a history of this
type of fishing, the living resources they seek, gear used, and value of recreational fishing.
Management of recreational fishermen is more varied than commercial fishermen because of
the different objectives of the two groups. Yet both groups have to be considered in many
management plans where both fisheries are actively harvesting from the same stocks of fish.
The future of their sport is reviewed. The recreational section is shorter than the commercial
fisheries section because more historical data and records are available for commercial fisher
ies worldwide. Also, many aspects of both kinds of fisheries are similar: species fished, re
search methods, and aspects of management. Therefore, once the general aspects of
commercial fishing have been discussed, including oceanography and ocean productivity,
only distinctive differences are covered in the recreational part.
I have included in this broad subject called "fisheries," substantial reference lists to direct
the readers to additional information. Instructors using this book as a course text can pro
vide updating of important current problems as information becomes available. It is, after
all, a broad field of knowledge with many important and rapid changes taking place in to
day's fisheries.
This book is being published during a time of very considerable turmoil in the history of
fisheries management. The decimated condition of numerous fisheries worldwide is ex
tremely serious, unprecedented, and threatens the economy of many coastal states and the
livelihood of their inhabitants. Developed countries are in the worst position, due for the most
part to overfishing and coastal pollution. In the late 1970s and the 1980s numerous symptoms
of fishing failures became much more evident and the scientific and popular literature warned
of the dangers ahead. Extended jurisdiction seaward to 200 miles in U.s. fisheries began in
1977, but unfortunately did little to reduce overfishing. Complete moratoriums on fishing
have been a necessary recourse in fisheries where catches have been dropping sharply for
years and there is no hope in sight. The current management thinking incorporates the con
cept of dropping open access fisheries and replacing them with ownership or property rights
such as individual transferable quotas. This is much more complicated than it sounds, but
fisheries selling shares or certificates to fishermen in some countries suggest the concept may
be a good replacement for fishery scientists and administrators with an "open access fisheries"
mind set. There is an urgent need to learn from past mistakes and take action now!
To my wife, Jane, I owe a debt of gratitude for the arduous task of editing very rough
drafts, consistency of style, proofreading, and other numerous tasks in preparing drafts of the
manuscript. My son, E. S. Iversen, Jr., with great patience and care and numerous lessons,
convinced me that computers are a valuable tool in today's world. Kay Hale, Helen Albert
son, and other library staff members of the University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine
and Atmospheric Science were most helpful in assisting me in locating and obtaining
references. Many of my colleagues at the University contributed advice and information for
this volume. Carl Sindermann provided valuable suggestions on the layout of the book. I
would be remiss if I did not acknowledge the comments and suggestions from the many stu
dents who used early typed versions of sections of this book as a study guide in my course
Marine Science 310, Living Marine Resources, Their Exploitation and Management, and my
Marine Biology and Fisheries course 509, Introduction to Fisheries.
Edwin S. Iversen
INTRODUCTION
The bulk of the world's fish and shellfish is caught in marine waters. For example, about
90% of the world's catch of ca. 90 million (mt) came from marine waters in 1991. The great
variety of fish and shellfish species in the sea with their numerous shapes, large sizes at
tained, and frequently bright colors are attractive to consumers and recreational fishermen.
Because of this variety of species and habitats available in the sea and consumer preferences,
many kinds of fishing gear and management plans are required.
The contribution fishing makes to a nation's economy varies, but in most countries it is
small compared to the total national economy. In large developed countries, the value of
landing represents no more than a fraction of a percent of national income. Naturally, in
small developed countries with long coast lines and well-established fisheries-for example,
Norway-fishing is of great importance. On the other hand, in developing countries, as in
the Far East where there is little heavy industry, fishing can generate considerable income,
and their fisheries can provide a cushion against famine when land crops fail.
The moral and social aspects of the challenge of hunger in the world today require the
need for resources of all nations to be effectively managed to reduce or avoid waste and
thereby help to reduce world hunger and starvation. The many living resources of the sea
are one source that can assist in this most worthy cause if we understand them and treat
them properly. Unfortunately we have failed miserably in many management attempts.
There is no doubt that hunger abounds in the world. Modern medicine has lengthened
human life the world over, but especially in the developing countries. This fact, together
with limits on food production and distribution, and natural disasters that reduce food pro
duction, such as droughts, freezes, long-term climatic changes, and floods cause grave con
cern that mass starvation in some parts of the world is imminent. Doomsayers and
forecasters state that an acute food shortage exists already and that it will worsen. Twenty
percent of the world faces actual starvation, beyond hunger or malnutrition. The global food
reserve 20 years ago, in 1974, was said to be a meager 30 day supply. To underscore the se
verity of this problem, in November 1974, the United Nations deemed the world food situa
tion so critical that it met in Rome in a World Food Conference to consider ways to increase
food production and improve distribution.
One must understand at the start that the problems in feeding the world will not be re
solved by increasing the production of food from the sea alone. The sea can produce a share
of the food for the world and can be a godsend, especially when land crops fail for one rea
son or another. But the fisheries are absolutely limited in production, as will be explained
later. Sea farming also must be viewed in the proper light, not as an answer to world food
xi