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Living language PDF

322 Pages·2008·7.6 MB·English
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Living Language 3rd Edition Series editors Jane Bluett and John Shuttleworth PART OF HACHETTE LIVRE UK Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct at time of going to press, Hodder Education cannot be held responsible for the content of any website mentioned in this book. It is sometimes possible to find a relocated web page by typing in the address of the home page for a website in the URL window of your browser. Hachette Livre UK’s policy is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SB. Telephone: (44) 01235 827720. Fax: (44) 01235 400454. Lines are open from 9.00am to 5.00pm, Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour message answering service.Visit our website at www.hoddereducation.co.uk Series editors: Jane Bluett and John Shuttleworth Author team: Jane Bluett, Susan Cockcroft, Grainne Costello, Mike Devitt, Keith Sanger © Jane Bluett, Susan Cockcroft, Grainne Costello, Mike Devitt, Keith Sanger 2008 First published in 1997 by Hodder Education, part of Hachette Livre UK, 338 Euston Road London NW1 3BH Second edition published 2000 This third edition first published 2008 Impression number 5 4 3 2 1 Year 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or held within any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Cover photo © Hal Roach/MGM/ The Kobal Collection Typeset in Palatino and Helvetica Neue. Editorial and production by Topics – The Creative Partnership, Exeter Printed in Italy A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library ISBN: 978 0 340 93955 0 Contents Introduction v Key Concepts for Studying English 1 Introduction 1 1Semantics 4 Lexis or vocabulary 8 Grammar and syntax 11 Sound patterning and phonology 16 Language functions 20 Pragmatics 23 Context 26 Text and discourse 31 Intertextuality 34 Narrative 35 Cohesion and coherence 40 Rhetoric 42 Language and Social Contexts 49 Exploring language variation 49 2 Language and gender 60 Language variation across Britain 71 Changing technology and language use 83 Language and occupation 88 Power relationships and language 91 Investigating Language 116 What is a language investigation? 116 3 How to structure a language investigation 121 Ideas for language investigations 130 The creative element 148 Creating Your Own Texts 160 Getting started 161 4 Writing to entertain 164 Writing to persuade 189 Writing to inform 200 Writing to instruct 215 Writing commentaries on your work 220 How Language Develops 232 Language acquisition 232 Language change 268 5 Glossary 306 Introduction Who are you? If you are reading this book, then you probably ● already have some experience in studying and enjoying English Language at GCSE ● are studying English Language at either AS or A2 level ● are aware of some of the relevant ideas behind the subject and are familiar with ways of writing about it. Obviously Living Language is primarily intended as an introduction to AS- and A-level English Language. However, it will also be useful if you are studying English Language & Literature. In this introduction we explain ● the differences between GCSE and A level ● how this book relates to the Assessment Objectives for the English Language specifications. Bridging the gap: from GCSE to A level You will find that moving from GCSE to A level is a big step, but not a step that you are unprepared for, nor one that will be too great. This is because there is an intermediate stage in A-level study which means that everyone has to sit an Advanced Subsidiary (AS) examination before proceeding to A level. Many people will take this examination at the end of the first year of their course, but it can be taken at other times, depending on how your course is organised. The AS exam is pitched at a standard in between A level and GCSE, so that, at the beginning of your A-level course, you are faced with less of a mountain to climb. You do not have to move on from AS to A level unless you wish to do so. Your exams are now connected like this: GCSE English AS English Language A-level English Language GCSE English Literature end of course end of course end of course GCSE English GCSE English Literature Shakespeare Shakespeare Prose – one of these has to be pre-1914 Prose Poetry Poetry Non-fiction texts Drama Media texts Comparisons between texts A range of speaking and listening activities Literary tradition A range of writing activities Cultural contexts v Introduction AS English Language This requires you to show knowledge and understanding of ■ the key features of the following areas of language study: ◆ phonology (sound and intonation patterns of speech) ◆ lexis (vocabulary) ◆ grammar (of both spoken and written texts) ◆ semantics and pragmatics (the ways meanings are constructed and interpreted in both speech and writing) ■ the ways language varies according to whether it is written or spoken and according to the context in which it is produced ■ the ways language varies according to personal and social factors ■ the ways that variations in language can shape and change meanings and forms. In addition you need to be able to ■ write appropriately and accurately for a variety of audiences and purposes and comment on what you have produced. A-level English Language (in addition to AS requirements) This requires you to show deeper knowledge and understanding of ■ areas of language study ■ the ways in which historical and geographical variation shape and change meanings and forms in language ■ the ways in which human language develops. (This may be a requirement of AS study depending on the specification you are following.) You need also to be able to ■ comment on and evaluate the usefulness of your application and exploration of these systematic approaches to the study of spoken and written texts, including texts from the past. So how is GCSE different from AS and A level? Naturally, there is continuity with English Language GCSE, as you would expect. There you had to write pieces for different purposes and had to study a range of non-fiction and non-literary texts. These feature again at AS and A level, but in addition you will be studying some spoken texts.You will also be studying how spoken and written language is structured and organised. In general terms, to succeed beyond GCSE you obviously need to enjoy studying language. You will also need to be prepared to study texts from outside your own time and culture, thus expanding your horizons. As you continue your studies, the methods you use will become as important as the content of the course. This is why how you approach a text is just as important as what you say about it. Above all, you will need to be able to make your own judgements about what you read and hear, coming closer to being an independent informed reader and listener as you progress through the course. The course you are following is already an excellent one designed to test your knowledge, understanding and skills in English Language. However, the government has stipulated that there should also be a number of Assessment Objectives whose purpose is to assess whether you have achieved AS- or A-level standard and therefore whether you deserve an award in the subject. The mark you achieve in each component of the course depends entirely on how well you have demonstrated your ability to meet these Assessment Objectives, whether in vi Introduction coursework or in an end-of-module examination. It’s as well, therefore, to know what these Assessment Objectives are. Here they are in full for AS and A level. Below each objective is a user-friendly explanation of what exactly the objective requires. Assessment Objectives AO1 – Select and apply a range of linguistic methods, to communicate relevant knowledge using appropriate terminology and coherent, accurate written expression. Here you are being asked to show that you can write about language in a way that shows you have studied it at an advanced level.You must be able to use technical terms effectively and precisely and show your understanding of the areas of language study to which you have been introduced.Your own written language must also be effective.You should learn to apply your knowledge of language to your own writing. As a student of A-level English Language you need to show that you can use accurate and well-constructed sentences. AO2 – Demonstrate critical understanding of a range of concepts and issues relating to the construction and analysis of meanings in spoken and written language, using knowledge of linguistic approaches. Language concepts and issues are the ideas and opinions that surround the use of language in all its forms.You need to understand a range of theories about language use as well as the attitudes and values language expresses or provokes.You must show that you have engaged with these ideas in a critical way and are able to challenge them – for example, political correctness, how we acquire language, attitudes to accents. AO3 – Analyse and evaluate the influence of contextual factors on the production and reception of spoken and written language, showing knowledge of the key constituents of language. All language use, written or spoken, is dependent upon the context in which it occurs. Here you must show that you are aware of the contextual factors at work. These will always include audience and purpose as well as more specific contexts you may be asked to consider, such as gender, power, occupation. AO4 – Demonstrate expertise and creativity in the use of English in a range of different contexts informed by linguistic study. You will be expected to write effectively for a range of audiences and purposes.You need to explore the writing process and develop your own skills as a writer.You need to show that what you have studied in the course informs the writing you produce.Your creativity should vii Introduction be shown in the way that you can manipulate language in a variety of ways. For example, how would you present a complex idea to a non-specialist audience? Addressing the new specifications Whichever English Language specification you are studying, you will be required to produce coursework and complete examination tasks that allow you to demonstrate the skills and understanding outlined in the Assessment Objectives. Each specification will ask you to do this in different ways. However, every A-level English Language student will be involved in the following activities: ● writing for different audiences and purposes ● analysing a wide range of written and spoken texts and data ● applying systematic approaches to the study of language ● exploring how language is used in a wide variety of social contexts ● evaluating theories and concepts to do with language use ● learning about the way language develops. Living Language addresses each of these modes of study, providing you with a range of resources and activities designed to support you in your A-level course. As well as guiding you towards exam success, Living Language will help you develop your own ideas about language use and improve your skills as a language practitioner. We hope that you will find this book a practical and informative guide to your journey through the English language. Technical terms Key technical terms are highlighted in blue the first time they occur in each chapter; these terms are defined in the Glossary at the end of the book. viii Key Concepts for Studying English 1 At the end of this chapter you should be able to ● select and apply a range of linguistic methods, to communicate relevant knowledge using appropriate terminology and coherent, accurate written expression (AO1) ● demonstrate critical understanding of a range of concepts and issues relating to the construction and analysis of meanings in spoken and written language, using knowledge of linguistic approaches (AO2) ● analyse and evaluate the influence of contextual factors on the production and reception of spoken and written language, showing knowledge of the key constituents of language (AO3) ● demonstrate expertise and creativity in the use of English in a range of different contexts informed by linguistic study (AO4). For a more student-friendly version of these Assessment Objectives, turn to page vii in the Introduction. Introduction One of the most irritating things when you start a new academic subject is that you don’t know the words, you can’t ‘talk the talk’, and you feel tongue-tied at best and totally mystified at worst. This can happen all too easily when you are introduced to the study of A-level English Language. Not only are you expected to know what people are talking about when they refer lightly to grammar, lexis and syntax, but alarming phrases like language concepts, diachronic change and phonological features may trip off the tongue of your teachers. How will you ever manage, you wonder? Maybe you should have taken AS Philosophy, Physics or PE instead? The aim of this chapter is to create a sense of calm confidence in the face of any relevant concept, term or theoretical position associated with the study of English Language so that by the end of the chapter you can not only ‘talk the talk’but understand and – when required – apply these concepts to real texts in English, whether they’re literary or non- literary, spoken or written. We start with the basic premise that language is either expressive (creative, conveying feeling and mood, literary) or functional (pragmatic, getting things done, non-literary) communication. (We shall be considering spoken and written English in this chapter, but most of the ideas, concepts and terminology can be recognised in all human languages.) Every language is structured in predictable patterns so that other speakers and writers recognise those patterns and can start to make sense of what is being spoken or written. (Babies learn from very early on to recognise the predictable patterns in the speech of their 1

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