LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND ANIMAL HEALTH MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN COMMUNAL FARMING AREAS AT THE WILDLIFE‐ LIVESTOCK INTERFACE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA by Jacques van Rooyen Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Philosophiae Doctor (PhD) Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria May 2016 ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa The reality of the close interaction of many lives of both people and animals who share the eastern floodplains of the Zambezi Region, Namibia, where wildlife, livestock, and people coexist across multiple land use systems ii ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa In dedication: Firstly; to my wonderful family: Spouse Renate, daughter Mieke‐Marié, and son Markus for all your support, patience, dedication, and especially sacrifices over the course of this research project. I would need to write another thesis to put into words what you were willing to withstand and how much I valued your continued support no matter how hard it became. May this achievement serve you most of all! Secondly; to my father; Dr Pierre van Rooyen, whom has always been an inspiration and example of how a PhD degree in combination with integrity and a humble spirit can be used to serve a nation’s farmers. May we form a strong team now that we are peers ‐ albeit only academically! *** All that I know now is partial and incomplete, but then I will know everything completely, just as God now knows me completely. 1 Corinthians 13: 12b NLT *** iii ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Numerous people from various sectors and institutions linked to the livestock production and conservation systems of the Mnisi and Zambezi study areas have assisted greatly in the successful completion of this thesis. All their contributions must be acknowledged. However, I would like to highlight the following people for specific inputs, support, and guidance: In the Zambezi study area: The Millennium Challenge Account funded Project team for all their support, guidance and especially patience: o Dr Susanne Thaltwitzer ‐ project coordinator o Dr Gavin Thomson – TAD Scientific o Dr Mary‐Lou Penrith – TAD Scientific o Dr Alexander Toto – SATOTO Livestock Projects The Farmers’ Mentorship Program of the Meat Board of Namibia: o Mr Gizaw Negussie – Project manager o Mr Hannes von Wielligh – Senior mentor o Mr George Sichombe ‐ Mentor o Mr Charles Libongani ‐ Mentor o The staff at the Meatco abattoir, Katima Mulilo: Mr Berry Manda (Procurement manager), and Mr Obed Kaatura (General manager) o The staff at the Directorate of Veterinary Services: Dr Frank Chitate (State veterinarian, ZR), and Dr Justin Yule (State veterinarian, ZR) The representatives from various conservation initiatives: o Dr Mike Atkinson and his spouse, Shirley: WCS‐AHEAD o Mr Russel Taylor – WWF Namibia o Miss Karine Nuulimba, IRDNC, and several of her field staff based at Katima Mulilo Miss Celia da Silva from Business Enterprises, University of Pretoria and her team whom assisted significantly with administration, finances, and logistical arrangements Several interpreters assisted during some parts of the project for a day or two when the Mentors were not available. I am very grateful for their assistance. I want to specifically thank Mr Martin Chiza for his assistance in this regard iv ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa Many‐a‐young boys that were always too keen to help get us out of a sandpit on the floodplains of eastern Zambezi Region In the Mnisi study area: The Mnisi Traditional Authority, its Council, the people of Mnisi, and especially the late Chief P.P. Mnisi for his support in the beginning years of this study The team associated with the Mnisi Community Project: Prof Nick Kriek and Ms Marie Watson of the Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Studies The survey team: Dr Maxime Madder (ITM), Ms Ellen Vandamme (ITM), Mr Pieter Visagie, Misses McMillan, Mr Sylvester Zimwara, Ms Marie Watson. Translators: Mr Pebane (MVS), Mr Justify Fakude, Mr George Ndlovu, Mr Andries Mabaso, Ms Margareth Magagule, Misses Percy Khoza, Mr Philemon Mbunghele, Mr Simon Ngwenya, Mr Harry Mnisi Mpumalanga State Veterinary Services: Dr Oupa Rikhotso (State Veterinarian), Mr Solly Mokone (AHT, Ward B3), Mr Jerry Ndlozi (AHT, Ward B1), Mr Gypsy Mathumba (AHT, Ward B2) Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Reserve: Ms Marie‐Tinka Uys and especially Ms Thandi Mananga for her substantial support and dedication in data processing The rangers and management of the Manyeleti and Andover Game Reserves for their support with field work and planning Mr Andries Masenge – Department of Statistics, University of Pretoria for all his help with numerous analyses, and especially his willingness to provide guidance and to test various approaches in order to find the best statistical method. In this regard I would like to thank Dr Marien Graham as well for her oversight and continuous advice General support: Significant gratitude is extended to the following organisations for substantial financial support for this PhD study: ‐ The Institute for Tropical Medicine, Antwerp – Belgium ‐ The University of Pretoria for their PhD Bursary ‐ The National Research Foundation of South Africa for their Sabbatical Grant v ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa Dr Louis van Schalkwyk for inspiration, motivation, and significant assistance with statistical analyses Dr Anne Conan, Postdoctoral fellow at the Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria The support of colleagues; Profs Darryn Knobel and Anita Michelle, as well as Dr Richard Burroughs, and Heads of Departments; Profs Koos Coetzer, Edward Webb, and Darrell Abernethy All the respondents during several meetings and discussions that always met us with enthusiasm, interest and patience –in both the Zambezi and Mnisi study areas Misses Sarah Heuer for editing the manuscript Postgraduate administration of the Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases for significant support, especially Ms Rina Serfontein My study leaders: Prof Edward Webb, and Prof Koos Coetzer for continued encouragement, guidance and support. Also Dr Maxime Madder for his support in the Mnisi survey. My father‐in‐law, Dr Tom von Moltke, for reminding me that a PhD is more about perseverance than intelligence, mother‐in‐law, Anita, sister‐in‐law Marike Visagie and family, as well as brother‐in‐law, Adolf, and family for all their support My mother, Hermine van Rooyen, for continued support, encouragement and especially prayers together with the steadfast support of my siblings, sisters Hermine and Mariette, and brother Pierre, as well as their families My Heavenly Father for His constant presence and for keeping all His promises. Without you, my Lord, I would not have succeeded! May this work glorify your Name. vi ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa DECLARATION I declare that the thesis, which I hereby submit for the degree Philosophiae Doctor at the University of Pretoria, is my own work and has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other tertiary institution. ____________________ J van Rooyen 15 May 2016 vii ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa TABLE OF CONTENTS Livestock production and animal health management systems in communal farming areas at the wildlife‐livestock interface in southern Africa ............................................................................................. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................................... iv Declaration ................................................................................................................................................ vii Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................................... viii List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. xii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. xv Executive summary .................................................................................................................................... xx 1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 23 Literature Review ................................................................................................................ 23 Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs) ...................................................................... 23 Conceptualising complexity at the wildlife‐livestock interface ...................................... 27 The Zambezi Region of Namibia ...................................................................................... 35 Commodity‐based trade: a possible alternative approach ............................................. 38 Livestock production and beef quality ............................................................................ 41 Prerequisite programmes and HACCP ............................................................................ 44 Good Agricultural Practices ............................................................................................. 46 Market access, poverty alleviation and rural development ........................................... 50 Value chain development approaches ............................................................................ 51 Concluding remarks ......................................................................................................... 55 Study objectives .................................................................................................................. 56 Structure of thesis ............................................................................................................... 57 2 Study Areas And Methodology ......................................................................................................... 58 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 58 Study Areas.......................................................................................................................... 59 Zambezi Region, Namibia ................................................................................................ 59 Bushbuckridge Local Municipality, South Africa ............................................................. 61 Methodological Approach .................................................................................................. 64 Overview .......................................................................................................................... 64 Data collection: Mnisi Study Area, South Africa ............................................................. 65 Data Collection: Zambezi Region of Namibia .................................................................. 67 Spatial Analyses ............................................................................................................... 70 viii ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa Summary of materials and methods per chapter ........................................................... 70 Statistical Procedures .......................................................................................................... 71 Research Approval .............................................................................................................. 71 3 Perceptions at the Interface: Beef Production ................................................................................. 72 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 72 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 74 Study areas ...................................................................................................................... 74 Data collection and analysis ............................................................................................ 74 Results ................................................................................................................................. 75 Herd size and composition .............................................................................................. 75 The role of cattle at household level ............................................................................... 78 Cattle production and health: risks and challenges ........................................................ 83 Cattle mortality rates ....................................................................................................... 89 Animal quality and improvement .................................................................................... 91 Extension and skill development ..................................................................................... 93 Trade and marketing ....................................................................................................... 93 Herd size effect ................................................................................................................ 98 Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 104 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 111 4 The perceptions of communal cattle farmers living at the wildlife‐livestock interface in the Zambezi Region of Namibia towards wildlife contact and conservation .............................................................. 114 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 114 Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 118 Results and discussion ...................................................................................................... 118 Perceptions regarding buffalo‐cattle contact and risk ................................................. 118 Wildlife‐livestock integration and community conservancies ...................................... 130 Mnisi Study Area ............................................................................................................ 141 Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 144 Perceptions regarding buffalo‐cattle contact and risk ................................................. 144 Farmers and conservation ............................................................................................. 150 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 152 5 The spatial distribution of grazers and grazing in the Zambezi Region and its impact on animal production .............................................................................................................................................. 155 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 155 ix ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 157 Study area ...................................................................................................................... 157 Data analysis .................................................................................................................. 157 Results ............................................................................................................................... 164 Perceptions and preferences: carcass quality ............................................................... 164 Carcass yield and quality ............................................................................................... 166 Cattle population dynamics ........................................................................................... 168 Vegetation types of the ZR ............................................................................................ 169 Cattle density and distribution ...................................................................................... 170 Biomass production and distribution ............................................................................ 173 Grazing capacity and stocking rate ................................................................................ 174 Competition with wildlife .............................................................................................. 180 Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 182 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 187 6 An analyses of the formal beef trade in the Zambezi Region and its accessibility as influenced by spatio‐temporal parameters at the wildlife‐livestock interface ............................................................. 190 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 190 Study area ......................................................................................................................... 193 Materials and methods ..................................................................................................... 193 Perceptions of trade barriers ........................................................................................ 193 Spatio‐temporal trends in formal sale and off‐take rates ............................................ 193 Results ............................................................................................................................... 197 Perceptions: constraints to market access and the quarantine system ....................... 197 Variation in abattoir throughput ................................................................................... 198 The effect of distance and season on formal trade ...................................................... 201 The effect of vegetation type on formal trade ............................................................. 206 Trade dynamics in terms of conservation and FMD outbreaks .................................... 208 Spatio‐temporal predictors of off‐take ......................................................................... 210 Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 212 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 219 7 Herding for Health: An integrated model to community‐driven value chain development for beef trade at the wildlife‐livestock interface .................................................................................................. 222 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 222 Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 227 x ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa
Description: