Lithium Needs and Resources. Proceedings of a Symposium Held in Corning, New York, 12–14 October 1977

174 Pages·1978·7.898 MB·English

by  S. S. Penner (Eds.)

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LITHIUM
Needs and Resources
PROCEEDINGS OF A SYMPOSIUM HELD IN
CORNING, NEW YORK, 12-14 OCTOBER 1977
Edited by
S. S. PENNER
Energy Center, UCSD, California, USA
PERGAMON PRESS
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First edition 1978
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Symposium on Lithium, Needs and Resources,
Corning, N.J. 1977
Lithium.
1. Lithium ores - Congresses
I. Title II. Penner, Stanford
Solomon III. Energy
553\499 TN490.L5 78-40372
ISBN 0-08-022733-3
Published as a special issue of ENERGY,
The International Journal, Volume 3 No. 3
and supplied to subscribers as part of
their subscription.
in order to make this volume available as economically and as rapidly as possible the
author's typescript has been reproduced in its original form. This method unfortu-
nately has its typographical limitations but it is hoped that they in no way distract
the reader.
Printed in Great Britain by A. Wheaton & Co. Ltd., Exeter
Energy Vol. 3, p. 235 0360-5442/78/0601-0235/$02.00/0
©Pergamon Press Ltd., 1978. Printed in Great Britain
INTRODUCTION
by
GEORGE H. EDWARDS
Corning Glass Works, Corning, NY 14830, U.S.A.
In January, 1976, prompted by a putative excess of future demand for lithium over predicted
supply, the U.S. Geological Survey convened the Symposium on Lithium Resources and
Requirements by the Year 2000 in Golden, Colorado (Vine, 1976).t
This Symposium was well attended, attracting representatives from the lithium-producing
industry, government, and academic researchers in the various energy-related uses of lithium,
lithium consumers, and many scientists concerned with the appraisal of lithium resources.
Both the papers presented and the ensuing discussions revealed a wide desparity between
the supply-demand estimates of the representatives of the lithium-producing industry, who
predicted no foreseeable shortage, and government specialists, who predicted the potential of a
serious shortfall in the supply of lithium beyond the year 2000.
For this reason, and because many of the papers presented were in the nature of works in
progress, it was the consensus of participants at the Symposium that a second meeting should
be convened.
In order to provide a venue free of any vested interest other than ensuring an uninterrupted
flow of lithium minerals and chemicals, Corning Glass Works volunteered to serve as organizer
and host for a second meeting, to be called the Symposium on Lithium Needs and Resources.
This second Symposium was convened at the Corning Glass Center in Corning, New York on
12-14 October, 1977.
Besides providing a neutral ground for the full airing of different opinions, the Symposium
committee endeavored to attract participants from outside the U.S.A. Ten countries were
represented among the approximately 100 participants, and five countries among the speakers.
While no specific conclusions were formalized during the Symposium, it was the tenor of
the group that pegmatite lithium resources are fully adequate for the near- and middle-term,
while brine and other sedimentary resources are potentially very large. Exploration for new
deposits of lithium, whether pegmatite or sedimentary, while not presently economically
justifiable, was demonstrated to hold the promise of rich rewards.
tj. D. Vine, Lithium resources and requirements by the year 2000 .U.S.G.S., Prof. Paper 1005, p. 1, Washington, D.C.,
1976.
235
Energy Vol. 3, pp. 237-240 0360-5442/78/0601-0237/S02.00/0
© Pergamon Press Ltd., 1978. Printed in Great Britain
THE LITHIUM INDUSTRY TODAY
E. P. COMERt
Chemicals and Minerals Division, Foote Mineral Company. Route 100. Exton, PA 19341. U.S.A.
{Received 11 November 1977)
Abstract—The element lithium was discovered in 1817 by the Swedish geologist, Arfvedson. The first
commercial production of lithium metal was in 1925 in Langelsheim, Germany by the German company.
Metallgesellschaft. Shortly thereafter, Maywood Chemical Company in New Jersey became a producer,
followed by Foote Mineral Company, Kerr-McGee and Lithium Corporation of America. Early uses of
lithium were for lithium hydroxide for CO absorption in submarines and for lithium-based lubricants
:
beginning during World War II.
Major uses of lithium today are lithium carbonate for aluminum cell bath additions, lithium hydroxide
for lubricants, lithium carbonate for ceramic and glass applications, lithium bromide for absorption type air
conditioners, butyllithium for synthetic rubbers, lithium metal as an intermediate in the pharmaceutical
industry. Many other low volume lithium chemicals are consumed in specialty areas. Total consumption in
1976 was between 40 and 45 million pounds expressed as lithium carbonate equivalents; some increase over
this is forecast for 1977.
More than adequate reserves exist for present and forecasted demands and the industry has demon-
strated its flexibility in rapidly increasing production capacity as increased demand warrants.
Earlier experience between 1955 and 1960, when the U.S. Government created extraordinary demand,
resulted in the industry gearing up for this in a timely fashion, but was followed by fourteen years of
overcapacity. Industry spokesmen decried this and wish to avoid a repeat by unwarranted claims by the
uninformed that there is a shortage of lithium reserves.
1. HISTORY
The element lithium, the lightest metal in its elemental form, was discovered in 1817 by a
Swedish geologist, Arfvedson, but was actually first isolated in 1855. The first commercial
production was by Metallgesellschaft in Langelsheim, Germany about 1925 and soon thereafter
by Maywood Chemical Company in New Jersey about 1927. Foote Mineral Company began
commercial production in the late 1930s, Kerr-McGee and Lithium Corporation of America
during World War II. The first significant use was for lithium hydroxide monohydrate for C0
2
absorption in submarines and for lithium based lubricants beginning during World War II.
Ceramic applications followed and then a major use between 1955 and 1960 by the U.S.
Government and the Russian Government for the production of hydrogen bombs. About the
same time, in the late 1950s and beginning in the early 1960s, lithium bromide in the
airconditioning industry and normal-butyllithium in the synthetic rubber industry. The history
of the commercial development of lithium has been a fascinating unfolding of somewhat
serendipitous events marked with somewhat erratic surges in new uses and demands for
increased quantities. While the total commercial market for lithium products in all forms is still
a small industry, the versatility of this unique element continues to stimulate man's creative
interests and probably the most fascinating applications for lithium still lie in the future, rather
than in the past.
2. WORLD PRODUCERS AND CONVERTERS
There are relatively few active producers of lithium chemicals in the world today. Foote
Mineral Company, a subsidiary of Newmont Mining Corporation, operates two facilities
recovering lithium values from the earth's crust, i.e. Kings Mountain, North Carolina where an
open pit mine containing spodumene ore is the headfeed for a spodumene concentrating plant
via flotation and results in several grades of spodumene concentrates being sold per se, i.e.
chemical grade, ceramic grade and low iron spodumene, as well as the use of chemical grade
spodumene feeding a new lithium carbonate plant which was completed in late 1976 and
engaged in startup in 1977. This lithium carbonate plant, costing approximately $22 million, has
a rated capacity of 12 million pounds per year of lithium carbonate and represents a 20%
increase in the free world's supply of lithium. Foote Mineral Company also operates a large
tVice President and General Manager Member of Board of Directors.
237
238 E. P. COMER
well and solar evaporation operation in Clayton Valley, Nevada where production has in recent
years reached the 16 million pound per year level. The actual plant for producing the final
lithium carbonate has a capacity of some 24 million pounds per year, depending upon the
headfeed supply being expanded from the well and pond system there. Foote Mineral Company
has also announced a joint venture in Chile at the Salar de Atacama and exploration work, as well
as a feasibility study and preliminary engineering work, are progressing at the present time,
which may result in the decision sometime in 1978 to build a lithium carbonate plant at that
location. The size of that plant has not yet been finalized, but is tentatively 12 million pounds
per year as LiC0 . Foote operates at other locations to convert LÌ2CO3 to the full line of
2 3
downstream commercial lithium products.
Lithium Corporation of America, a subsidiary of Gulf Resources & Chemical Corporation,
has a large open pit mine near Bessemer City, North Carolina where it mines its spodumene ore
as headfeed for a spodumene concentrate flotation mill which, in turn, is used for headfeed to
manufacture an announced 27 million pounds of lithium carbonate per year. The Lithium
Corporation of America, at its centralized Bessemer City, North Carolina operation also
manufactures the full line of downstream lithium chemicals, lithium metal and other more
exotic and less commercially known lithium chemicals. The Lithium Corporation of America
has announced a 50% increase in their productive capacity to be accomplished during the next two
years. Kerr-McGee Corporation, operating at Searles Lake, California produces modest
quantities of lithium carbonate as a by-product from its potash operation there. Soviet Russia
also has production capabilities to make lithium hydroxide and lithium carbonate from a
spodumene deposit in the Ural Mountains. While the exact size of this production facility has
never been officially announced by the Russian Government, informed sources indicate that it is
somewhere between 8 and 15 million pounds of lithium carbonate equivalents per year.
Metallgesellschaft of West Germany have a full line lithium chemical facility located in
Langelsheim, West Germany and, as I indicated earlier, this was the first commercial producing
location of lithium metal. In Japan, Honjo Zinc Company has conversion facilities whereby
they can make some downstream lithium chemicals from lithium carbonate or lithium
hydroxide, which are imported to Japan from either the United States or Russia.
In 1976, we believe that free world purchases represented a total of about 40-45 million
pounds of lithium carbonate equivalents. 1977 we believe, will probably result in some increase
in free world purchases over the 1976 number but, since the year is not over, we have no
precise numbers to offer at present.
3. MARKETS FOR LITHIUM METAL AND LITHIUM COMPOUNDS
The largest single use for lithium carbonate is in the aluminum industry, where it
increases production, lowers costs and reduces fluoride emissions. This application for lithium
carbonate, which becomes lithium fluoride in situ in the cryolite bath, was first pointed out by
Mr. Hall in 1886 in his first patent for the "Hall Process" for making aluminum metal. It was
not until much later, i.e. sometime in the early 1960s, that renewed interest in this application
was sparked by some new patents by Kaiser Industries. It was not until the early 1970s that any
significant consumption of lithium carbonate was actually begun by the aluminum industry. At
the present time, we believe that approximately 25-30% of all aluminum manufactured in the
United States utilizes the addition of lithium carbonate to the potlines. It is this area that we
have the highest optimism for continued growth in the use of lithium carbonate.
Lithium carbonate and lithium ores are also used extensively in the glass and ceramic
industries. Use of lithium ores and lithium carbonate in the ceramic industry is probably the
second largest consumer of lithium at the present time. Ores are used in products such as
Corningware, black and white television tubes, and in rigid foam fibreglass insulation. Lithium
carbonate is used in the ceramic industry for producing porcelain enamel frits, photochromic
lenses and cooking countertops. Foote Mineral Company is the only commercial supplier in the
U.S. producing various grades of spodumene consumed by the ceramic industry. Significant
quantities of petalite were consumed in the U.S. prior to the U.N. sanctions against Rhodesia, and,
following sanctions against petalite from Rhodesia, Foote Mineral Company developed a patented
process commonly referred to as "the Low Iron Spodumene Process" for decreasing the iron
content in spodumene to a level of about 0.12 Fe0 .
2 3
The lithium industry today 239
Lithium hydroxide monohydrate is the third largest application for lithium and the second
largest application for any lithium chemical. Its primary use is in the production of multi-
purpose greases. The lithium based greases have the advantage of wider temperature range
applications without changing the grease viscosity and also they are more water resistant than
other greases now made. The penetration of lithium hydroxide in the grease industry in the
United States and most other industrialized countries, is somewhere around 55% of all greases
manufactured. A minor use of lithium hydroxide is also in certain zinc-based paints utilized for
such purposes as bridges and high corrosion prone ship holds. There is a very minor quantity of
lithium hydroxide consumed as C0 absorbent in submarines and manned space vehicles.
2
Lithium organics, such as normal-butyllithium and secondary-butyllithium, are used in the
production of certain synthetic rubbers. This application first began in the United States about
1961, showed some encouraging growth for about a decade, slowed down and has experienced
some recovery in 1977 over the recession experienced in 1975.
Lithium bromide is a heat exchange fluid in absorption type airconditioners and has had a
somewhat spotty history. This type of absorption airconditioner was first developed in the mid
and late 1950s, experienced good growth in the 1960s, and seems to have plateaued in recent
years due to the shift in the cost of energy and in the slow rate of construction of shopping
centers, high-rise apartments and large office buildings.
Lithium chloride, both as a brine and as a salt, has very minor applications in one or two
very special types of humidity control devices for surgical operating rooms and ship holds. In
anhydrous form, it has a relatively minor application in certain eutectics used in aluminum
honeycomb brazing.
Lithium metal again has had a fairly flat application in certain pharmaceutical applications as
an intermediate.
The most talked about and highly publicized applications for lithium and lithium metal are,
of course, in the infant lithium battery industry, which has shown some important potential and
some important scientific breakthroughs in the past five to seven years but, in terms of actual
quantity consumed, remain quite minor in the overall lithium marketing picture worldwide as of
this date. I will not dwell any further on the lithium battery and its potential, both for primary
and secondary batteries, since I know other speakers on the program will cover this material in
far more detail than is appropriate for my paper.
4. LITHIUM RESERVES
Detail about the known lithium reserves and lithium resources in the crust of the earth are
discussed elsewhere. It is my belief that the delineated lithium resources available at present
day economically recoverable parameters are more than adequate to meet the real and
realistically to-be-anticipated requirements for lithium for many, many decades to come.
5. CLOSING COMMENTS
The marketing situation in the lithium industry today has been described in the preceding
sections. Compared to many other industries, there are actually very few lithium compounds
that are sold in sufficient quantity to be regarded as commercial products. Their applications are
rather limited numerically and, except for the possible opportunity for growth in the aluminum
industry, do not appear to have an unusually high growth rate anticipation in most other
applications. Unless, indeed, it does come to pass with the development of lithium batteries or
ultimately, some decades hence, controlled thermonuclear fusion reactors for the generation of
electricity.
One of the most disturbing things that-has happened to those of us who have spent most of
our working careers in the lithium industry has been the unfortunate news stories which have
indicated that widespread use of lithium batteries for vehicular propulsion are just around the
corner and that that use, coupled with unrealistic growth projections for present lithium based
products, plus the possibility of there eventually being a successful utilization for lithium in
thermonuclear reactors, has caused some people to believe that lithium resources are in-
adequate to meet all these demands. In the first place, many of the people who have made wild
projections, or at least projections that I believe to be wild, irresponsible and very blue sky,
have often been unaware of the actual lithium reserves and resources known when they made
EGY Vol. 3 No. 3-B
240 E. P. COMER
such public statements. In other cases, there have been individuals who, to perpetuate their
own special interests and self-interest, have made public announcements on several occasions
that have been publicized around the world that vast shortages of lithium resources exist and,
therefore, it is imperative that massive new programs be instituted for the exploration and
delineation of new sources of lithium. I feel that this has done a great disservice to the lithium
producers, who have struggled valiantly and long and quite successfully in thi fsield for thirty or
forty years to try and build a reliable and responsible industry and who have expended their
own private funds for the exploration and development of lithium at a rate that has more than
kept pace with any demand that has as yet been placed upon the industry.
The most notable jump in the demand for lithium occurred between 1955 and 1960, when the
United States Atomic Energy Commission had enormous sudden requirements for lithium
hydroxide as a source for the isotope 6 for use in the hydrogen bomb program. Within less than
two years from the time this huge nonrecurring demand was made known, the lithium industry
responded, built plants and indeed supplied the quantity required to the Federal Government
within the allocated five-year time period. At the end of this program in late 1959, the lithium
industry was left with 500% overcapacity in its mining, concentrating and lithium hydroxide
producing facilities. While this may not have been of much concern to the Atomic Energy
Commission or other government agencies, it was an agonizing concern to those of us who
were day-to-day participants in this industry and trying to keep it alive during such oversupply
conditions. The lithium industry went through a period of thirteen years in which profits fell to
a nonexistent or minimum survival level and a number of producing companies and plants
actually did not survive during this period of vast overcapacity. It is, therefore, with special
concern and real remembered pain and agony that I wish to state that I believe that those
individuals who continue to express unrealistic concern about the supply of lithium resources
and the ability of the lithium industry to convert these resources into usable forms of lithium,
should behave more responsibly. As I said eighteen months ago at the first Lithium Symposium
in Golden, Colorado to those who expressed this concern about the unavailability of lithium, I
am prepared at this meeting or any time to take your orders for lithium ores, lithium chemicals
or lithium metal in whatever form you wish to have it.
Energy Vol. 3. p. 241 0360-5442/78/0601 -0241 /S02.00/0
© Pergamon Press Ltd.. 1978. Printed in Great Britain
LITHIUM IN EUROPE (SUMMARY)
R. J. BAUER
Metallgesellschaft AG, Reuterweg 14, 6000 Frankfurt (Main) 1, West Germany
(Received 6 January 1978)
Abstract—Lithium was discovered 160 years ago by Arfvedson, a Swedish geologist. About 50 years ago,
lithium carbonate was first produced in industrial quantities by Metallgesellschaft AG in Germany, using a
mica-type lithium mineral, the zinnwaldite, as starting material.
Europe has no large deposit of spodumene, petalite or amblygonite, which could serve as a base for
industrial production of lithium compounds. Only lepidolite occurs in quantities big enough to envisage
such a production if the market justifies the higher cost involved in using lepidolite instead of spodumene as
basic raw material. This may very well be the case for the feedstock of a nuclear fusion-energy plant.
For the time being, nearly all lithium raw material, especially lithium carbonate and the ores for direct
application, are imported from America, Russia and Africa.
At the present time, Metallgesellschaft is the only industrial producer of lithium compounds in Europe.
Other producers, like Rhône Poulenc in France, Montecatini in Italy and Associated Lead in England, have
abandoned their lithium activities due to unfavourable economic conditions.
Metallgesellschaft produces the whole range of lithium compounds: lithium hydroxide, all types of
lithium salts, lithium metal, butyl lithium and the lithium hydrides (especially lithium aluminum hydride).
The plant capacity is big enough to satisfy any possible demand.
The uses for lithium ores and chemicals are, with a few modifications, the same as in the United States.
About 15-20,000 tons of lithium minerals are used in the ceramic, enamelling and glass industry, in many
cases in order to replace fluorspar.
The most interesting new application of lithium compounds is the use of lithium carbonate in the
aluminum industry, which allows either up to 10% higher production and/or cost and energy savings and
reduction of fluorine emission. If no new applications (e.g. the lithium battery) develop, growth in the
lithium market in Europe is expected to come mainly from the aluminum industry, which could double
present consumption of about 2 million lb of lithium carbonate within the next 5-10 years. All other
applications, such as pjoduction of lithium hydroxide for lubricating greases or lithium chloride for welding
fluxes, are quite stable or only slowly increasing. Some uses are shrinking, e.g. the use of lithium bromide
for air-conditioning equipment. Also, more highly sophisticated compounds, such as butyl lithium or lithium
aluminum hydride, show only very modest growth rates.
Europe's total lithium-compound requirements expressed as lithium carbonate equivalents are at present
on the order of 7 million lb.
The lithium industry can cope with an increase in demand, not only for lithium carbonate but also for
the other compounds. No spectacular development in lithium prices is anticipated.
Energy Vol. 3. pp. 243-246 036O-5442/78/06Ol-0243/$02.0O/0
© Pergamon Press Ltd.. 1978. Printed in Great Britain
PAST AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARKET
FOR LITHIUM IN THE WORLD ALUMINIUM INDUSTRY
PIERS NICHOLSON
Roskill Information Services Ltd., 14 Great College Street, London, SW1P 3RZ, England
{Received 14 November 1977)
Abstract—The use of lithium carbonate in aluminium production has become a very significant end-use for
lithium in the 20 years since it was first used for this purpose on a commercial scale. The sparse published
information suggests that lithium carbonate will gradually be adopted in more and more plants around the
world, and thus that lithium demand for this end-use will continue growing. A recent study of lithium usage
in each of the world's aluminium plants shows, however, that there are more complex factors involved in
the decision to use lithium carbonate than are commonly thought, that some plants which have adopted
lithium carbonate are unlikely to use it indefinitely, and that lithium demand is likely to be cyclical with
peaks at times of high aluminium demand. Free World demand for lithium carbonate for aluminium
production outside the US is probably about 10001 in 1977 and is likely tò rise to 25001 in 1980. US demand
is much higher, probably 85001 in 1977.
1. INTRODUCTION
The benefits of using lithium additives in aluminium potlines were first demonstrated on a
commercial scale by Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Corp, who applied for a patent in 1958.
This paper reviews the growth of demand for lithium carbonate in the aluminium industry since
then. This is an ambitious task which can not be done fully since some aluminium companies
regard the use, or non-use, of lithium additives as a matter of commercial secrecy, and the
major suppliers of lithium compounds do not publish details of their sales divided by end-use.
2. EFFECTS OF ADDING LITHIUM CARBONATE
The decision whether or not to add lithium carbonate in a given plant is one of much greater
complexity than might appear at first sight. This paper can not attempt to review all the
technical factors involved. Among the more important effects of adding lithium carbonate (or
fluoride) to the melt are:
(1) lowering of the liquidus temperature (freezing point) of the electrolyte;
(2) increasing the electrical conductivity;
(3) lowering the bath temperature of the melt and thus the electricity consumption and costs
for a given quantity of aluminium produced or increasing production of aluminium from the
potline if the bath temperature and thus electricity consumption is held constant;
(4) reducing the fluorine emissions;
(5) reducing the consumption of anode carbons;
(6) reducing the consumption of cryolite;
(7) making operational control of the potline more difficult and more dependent on instru-
ments;
(8) increasing the impurity level in the aluminium product because some of the lithium
passes through into the aluminium, and there is sometimes an increase in iron impurities too;
(9) possibly creating some difficulties in casting shapes due to the formation of heavier oxide
layers which can cause plugging of dip tubes.
A full review of the technical factors is given in a paper by Günther Wendt of VAW1 .But
this list is sufficient to show that any one of three basic reasons may make the use of
lithium carbonate justifiable. These three reasons are to save money on operating costs, to
increase output from a fixed plant, or to reduce fluorine emissions. The saving of money is
dependent mainly on the cost of electricity—many aluminium smelters, such as those in the
UK, enjoy long-term electricity supply arrangements at artificially low prices. Increasing output
from a plant can be an important reason in times when the aluminium industry is operating at
near capacity, but this has not been the case for some time, and in any event, it is difficult to
introduce the use of lithium carbonate quickly because of the changes in operational procedures
243