Linguistics for Everyone: An Introduction

577 Pages·2012·22.42 MB·English

by  Kristin Denham

Consonant Phonemes of English
Bilabial Labiodental Interdental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Stop p b t d k g
Fricative f v θ ð s z š ž
Affricate č ǰ
Nasal m n ŋ
Glide ʍ w y h
l
Liquid
r
= voiceless = voiced
You may prefer to use the following alternative symbols for the palatal affricates and fricatives:
š = ∫, ž = ʒ, č = t∫, and ǰ = dʒ.
Non-Alphabetic Consonant Symbols with Examples
Symbol Word-initial Word-medial Word-final
θ thin, thank, thought author, Arthur bath, breath
ð then, though wither, feather bathe, breathe
š ship, charade dishes, nation fish, rash
ž genre measure, casual rouge, garage1
č chip, cello riches, kitchen ditch, which
ǰ gem, jump bludgeon, bridger ridge, judge
ŋ N/A ringer, singing wing, tongue
ʍ what, which2 awhile N/A
1. In some dialects, these words would have / ǰ/ rather than /ž/.
2. These words begin with /w/ rather than /ʍ/ for most American English speakers.
Monophthongal Vowels with Example Words
Front Central Back
High i (beat) u (boot)
ı (bit) ʊ (put)
Mid e (bait) ə (tuna) o (boat)
ɛ (bet) ʌ (but) ɔ (bawdy)
Low æ (bat) a (body)
The most common diphthongs in American English are
/ay/ as in wide and sky (also sometimes written as /aɪ/ or /ai/)
/aw/ as in loud and cow (also sometimes written as /æw/, /æʊ/, or /aʊ/)
/oy/ as in toy and foil (also sometimes written as /ɔy/, /ɔɪ/, or /oɪ/)
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Linguistics for
Everyone
An Introduction
Second Edition
Kristin Denham
Western Washington University
Anne Lobeck
Western Washington University
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
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Linguistics for Everyone: An Introduction, © 2013, 2010 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Second Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
Kristin Denham, Anne Lobeck
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Contents
PrEfAcE xvii
AcKnowLEDgmEnts xxiii
what is Language and How Do we study it? 1
1
wHAt is LAnguAgE? 3
Our Language Expertise 3
Acquiring versus Learning a Language 4
HumAn LAnguAgE AnD AnimAL communicAtion 4
Can Other Animals Learn Language? 6
Two Case Studies: Washoe and Nim 6
Did You Know . . . ? Rico and Chaser, Smarter Than the Average Dogs 7
wHAt is grAmmAr? 7
The Components of Grammar 8
What Is Grammatical? 9
Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammar 10
When Prescription and Description Overlap 10
Modification: Another Overlap 11
Grammar across Space and Time 12
Universal Grammar 13
Linguistics in the news The Language Blog and Eggcorns 14
Parameters 15
Sign Language Grammar 16
Sign Language versus Body Language 17
Language Alive! Sign Language Diversity 17
tHE sciEntific stuDY of LAnguAgE 18
Noam Chomsky and Generative Grammar 18
Did You Know . . . ? Noam Chomsky 19
Influences on Modern Linguistics 20
Rationalism and Empiricism 20
Structural Linguistics 21
Linguistics toDAY 22
Accent on The Linguistic Society of America 23
Summary 24
Sources and Resources 25
Review, Practice, and Explore 25
iii
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iv
• Contents
the Human capacity for Language 31
2
our cAPAcitY to AcquirE LAnguAgE 32
What Children’s “Mistakes” Tell Us 33
Mouses and Foots: Overgeneralizing Rules 33
Language Alive! One Wug and Two . . . Wugs? 34
Evidence for Universal Grammar 34
Children Don’t Learn by Analogy 36
Stages of First Language Acquisition 37
The Prelinguistic Stage: The Early Months 37
The Babbling Stage: 4 to 8 Months 38
Did You Know . . . ? How Do You Study an Infant? 38
The One-Word Stage: 9 to 18 Months 38
The Two-Word Stage: 18 to 24 Months 39
Language Alive! Hardwiring and Order of Acquisition 40
The Early Multiword Stage: 24 to 30 Months 40
The Later Multiword Stage: 30 Months and Older 41
A Critical Period for Language Acquisition? 43
Did You Know . . . ? Baby Talk and Parentese 43
Did You Know . . . ? What about Baby Einstein? 44
Acquisition and Isolation: Victor and Genie 45
Sign Language Acquisition 45
sEconD LAnguAgE Acquisition 46
Is It Learning or Acquisition? 46
Interlanguage Grammar 46
Social Aspects of Second Language Acquisition 47
Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar 48
two nAtivE LAnguAgEs: BiLinguALism 48
Misperceptions about Bilingualism 48
our cAPAcitY to crEAtE LAnguAgE 49
Pidgins and Creoles 50
Nicaraguan Sign Language 52
Linguistics in the news A Gene for Language? 53
LAnguAgE AnD tHE BrAin 54
Language Intelligence? 54
Specific Language Impairment 54
Linguistic Savants 54
Williams Syndrome 55
A Language Center in the Brain? 55
Did You Know . . . ? Poor Phineas Gage 58
Broca’s Aphasia 58
Wernicke’s Aphasia 58
More Evidence for Lateralization 59
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v
Contents •
Dichotic Listening 60
Split-Brain Patients 60
Brain Imaging 61
Accent on Clinical Linguistics 61
Summary 62
Sources and Resources 63
Review, Practice, and Explore 65
Phonetics: Describing sounds 69
3
sounDs AnD sYmBoLs 71
PHonEmEs 72
consonAnts 72
Voiced and Voiceless Consonants 73
Did You Know . . . ? Visible Speech 75
Place of Articulation 76
Bilabial 76
Language Alive! A Disappearing Sound 76
Labiodental 77
Interdental 77
Alveolar 77
Palatal 77
Velar 78
Glottal 78
Manner of Articulation 78
Stops 78
Fricatives 79
Language Alive! Why Do We Spell Words with -ough? 79
Affricates 79
Linguistics in the news Peter Ladefoged: Pioneer in Phonetics 80
Nasals 81
Did You Know . . . ? Mom Is Bob 81
Glides 81
Liquids 81
Language Alive! Forgotten Clusters 82
Why All These Distinctions? 82
Slips of the Tongue 84
vowELs 85
Language Alive! Do Dawn and Don Rhyme? 86
Diphthongs 86
Syllabic Consonants 88
Other Vowel Distinctions 88
Language Alive! Double Is Not Long 89
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vi
• Contents
Vowel Shifts 90
The Great Vowel Shift 91
The Northern Cities Chain Shift 92
The Southern Vowel Shift 92
PHonEmEs AnD ALLoPHonEs 94
Accent on Product Naming 95
Summary 96
Sources and Resources 97
Review, Practice, and Explore 97
Phonology: the sound Patterns of Language 103
4
PHonEmEs AnD ALLoPHonEs 104
Did You Know . . . ? Babies Are Better at Language 107
Language Alive! Long-Lost English Allophones 108
AssimiLAtion ruLEs 109
Vowel Nasalization 109
Alveolar Nasal Assimilation 109
Nasal Assimilation 109
Palatalization 110
Did You Know . . . ? Invented Spelling 110
Voicing Assimilation 111
DissimiLAtion ruLEs 113
Dissimilation of Liquids and Nasal Sounds 113
Dissimilation of Fricative Sounds 114
insErtion ruLEs 114
Insertion of Vowels 114
Insertion of Consonants 115
Insertion of Voiceless Stop 115
Insertion of /y/ 115
DELEtion ruLEs 116
Deletion of /r/ after Vowels 116
Language Alive! Where the Heck Is <h>? 116
Deletion of Fricative Next to Fricative 117
Did You Know . . . ? Where Do You Get Tenashoes? 117
Deletion of Like Sounds or Syllables 117
Simplification of Consonant Clusters 117
Simplification of Syllable-Final Consonant Clusters 118
fronting ruLEs 118
Fronting of Velar Nasal to Alveolar Nasal 118
Fronting in Child Language 118
Fronting of /x/ 119
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