Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication, Sixth Edition

645 Pages·2010·7.64 MB·English

by  Adrian Akmajian

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L I N G U I S T I C S
An Introduction to Language and Communication

S I X T H E D I T I O N
Adrian A K M A J I A N

Richard A. D E M E R S
Ann K. FA R M E Rq
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Robert M. H A R N I S H
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LINGUISTICS

LINGUISTICS
An Introduction to Language and Communication
Sixth Edition
Adrian Akmajian
Richard A. Demers
Ann K. Farmer
Robert M. Harnish
The MIT Press
Cambridge, Massachusetts
London, England
(2010MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology
Allrights reserved. No partof this bookmaybe reproduced inany formby any
electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or informa-
tionstorageandretrieval)withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.
Forinformationaboutspecialquantitydiscounts,pleasee-mail
[email protected].
ThisbookwassetinTimesNewRomanon3B2byAscoTypesetters,HongKong.
PrintedandboundintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Linguistics:anintroductiontolanguageandcommunication/AdrianAkmajian
...[etal.].—6thed.
p. cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-0-262-01375-8(hardcover:alk.paper)—ISBN978-0-262-51370-8
(pbk.:alk.paper)
1.Linguistics. I.Akmajian,Adrian.
P121.A4384 2010
410—dc22 2009028422
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Acknowledgments ix
NotetotheTeacher xi
PART I
THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN LANGUAGE 1
Introduction 3
Chapter1
WhatIsLinguistics? 5
Chapter2
Morphology:TheStudyoftheStructureofWords 13
2.1 Words:SomeBackgroundConcepts 13
2.2 ComplexWordsandMorphemes 18
2.3 Neologisms:HowAreNewWordsCreated? 25
2.4 InflectionalversusDerivationalMorphology 45
2.5 ProblematicAspectsofMorphologicalAnalysis 48
2.6 SpecialTopics 51
TheMeaningofComplexWords 51
MoreonCompounds 52
MorphologicalAnaphora 55
ClassesofDerivationalA‰xes 56
Chapter3
PhoneticsandPhonemicTranscription 67
3.1 SomeBackgroundConcepts 68
3.2 TheRepresentationofSpeechSounds 73
vi Contents
3.3 SpecialTopics 99
Vowelsbefore/r/ 99
ContractionsinCasualSpokenEnglish 101
ConsonantClusters 103
Chapter4
Phonology:TheStudyofSoundStructure 109
4.1 WhatIsPhonology? 109
4.2 TheInternalStructureofSpeechSounds:DistinctiveFeatureTheory 110
4.3 TheExternalOrganizationofSpeechSounds 126
4.4 SpecialTopic 140
TheWord-LevelToneContourofEnglish 140
Chapter5
Syntax:TheStudyofSentenceStructure 149
5.1 SomeBackgroundConcepts 149
5.2 AnInformalTheoryofSyntax 154
5.3 AMoreFormalAccountofEarlyTransformationalTheory 194
5.4 SpecialTopics 201
MoreonDependencies 201
(D)evolutionofPhraseStructureandTransformationalRules 208
Chapter6
Semantics:TheStudyofLinguisticMeaning 225
6.1 SemanticsasPartofaGrammar 225
6.2 TheoriesofMeaning 226
6.3 TheScopeofaSemanticTheory 234
6.4 SpecialTopics 246
MoodandMeaning 246
DeicticsandProperNames 250
DefiniteDescriptions:ReferentialandAttributive 254
NaturalKindTerms,Concepts,andtheDivisionofLinguisticLabor 256
AnaphoraandCoreference 257
CharacterandContent:SemanticMinimalism 260
vii Contents
Chapter7
LanguageVariation 273
7.1 LanguageStylesandLanguageDialects 273
7.2 SomePropertiesoftheGrammarofInformalStyleinEnglish 285
7.3 OtherLanguageVarieties 293
Chapter8
LanguageChange 311
8.1 SomeBackgroundConcepts 311
8.2 TheReconstructionofIndo-EuropeanandtheNatureofLanguage
Change 315
8.3 TheLinguisticHistoryofEnglish 332
8.4 SpecialTopics 343
LanguageFamiliesoftheWorld 343
EstablishingDeepLinguisticRelationships 344
PART II
COMMUNICATION AND COGNITIVE SCIENCE 357
Introduction 359
Chapter9
Pragmatics:TheStudyofLanguageUseandCommunication 363
9.1 SomeBackgroundConcepts 363
9.2 TheMessageModelofLinguisticCommunication 365
9.3 TheInferentialModelofLinguisticCommunication 371
9.4 DiscourseandConversation 388
9.5 SpecialTopics 393
Performatives 393
SpeechActs 395
Meaning,Saying,andImplicating 399
ImplicitureandNeo-GriceanPragmatics 402
Chapter10
PsychologyofLanguage:SpeechProductionandComprehension 419
10.1 PerformanceModels 419
10.2 SpeechProduction 419
viii Contents
10.3 LanguageComprehension 427
10.4 SpecialTopics 458
TheMcGurkE¤ect 458
ThePsychologicalRealityofEmptyCategories 459
ConnectionistModelsofLexicalAccessandLetterRecognition 462
Chapter11
LanguageAcquisitioninChildren 481
11.1 SomeBackgroundConcepts 481
11.2 IsTherea‘‘LanguageAcquisitionDevice’’? 494
11.3 IstheHumanLinguisticCapacityUnique?ChildrenandPrimates
Compared 510
11.4 SpecialTopic 519
PrinciplesandParameters 519
Chapter12
LanguageandtheBrain 531
12.1 IsLanguageLocalizedintheBrain—andIfSo,Where? 532
12.2 HowDoestheBrainEncodeandDecodeSpeechandLanguage? 539
12.3 AretheComponentsofLanguageNeuroanatomicallyDistinct? 547
12.4 SpecialTopics 551
PETandfMRIImaging 551
Event-RelatedPotentials 555
JapaneseOrthographyandGraphicAphasia 560
IsFOXP2a‘‘LanguageGene?’’ 560
Appendix
TheWrittenRepresentationofLanguage 569
Glossary 579
Index 601
Acknowledgments
Forthissixtheditionwewouldliketothankthemanystudentswhomwe
have taught and from whom we have learned. We would also like to
express our special thanks to our colleagues Henry Byerly, Massimo
Piattelli-Palmarini, Merrill Garrett, and Nicholas Farmer, and to David
Hillforhelpwiththeindex.Finally,thankstoAnneMark,forherediting
skills and excellent feedback during thepreparation of the manuscript.