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Light Scattering Reviews 4: Single Light Scattering and Radiative Transfer (Springer Praxis Books / Environmental Sciences) (No. 4) PDF

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Preview Light Scattering Reviews 4: Single Light Scattering and Radiative Transfer (Springer Praxis Books / Environmental Sciences) (No. 4)

Light Scattering Reviews 4 Single Light Scattering and Radiative Transfer Alexander A. Kokhanovsky (Editor) Light Scattering Reviews 4 Single Light Scattering and Radiative Transfer Published in association with Praxis Publishing Chichester, UK Editor Dr Alexander A. Kokhanovsky Institute of Environmental Physics University of Bremen Bremen Germany SPRINGER±PRAXIS BOOKS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES (LIGHT SCATTERING SUB-SERIES) SUBJECT ADVISORY EDITOR: John Mason B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D. EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD MEMBER: Dr Alexander A. Kokhanovsky, Ph.D. Institute of Environmental Physics, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany ISBN 978-3-540-74275-3 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York Springer is part of Springer-Science + Business Media (springer.com) Library of Congress Control Number: 2008939874 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. # Praxis Publishing Ltd, Chichester, UK, 2009 Printed in Germany The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a speci®c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: Jim Wilkie Project copy editor: Mike Shardlow Author-generated LaTex, processed by EDV-Beratung, Germany Printed on acid-free paper Contents List of contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .XIII Notes on the contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XV Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .X.XIII Part I Single Light Scattering 1 Scaled analogue experiments in electromagnetic scattering Bo A˚. S. Gustafson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Theoretical basis for scaled electromagnetic experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3 Scattering by a few common particle classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.3.1 Mie-solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.3.2 Evaluating the scattering by HCPs and other complex natural particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.4 The scattering problem in the laboratory setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.4.1 Considerations in designing a high-precision scattering laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.4.2 Analogue particle materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.5 Scaled analogue scattering laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.5.1 The classic laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.5.2 The University of Florida laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1.5.3 Complex interiors scattering experiment example . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2 Laboratory measurements of the light scattered by clouds of solid particles by imaging technique Edith Hadamcik, Jean-Baptiste Renard, Anny-Chantal Levasseur-Regourd, Jean-Claude Worms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.1.1 Astronomical and atmospheric context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.1.2 Polarization measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.1.3 Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.2 Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 2.2.1 Samples preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 VI Contents 2.2.2 Levitation techniques, advantages and restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 2.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2.3.1 Calibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2.3.2 Phase curves and their parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2.3.3 Optical and physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 2.3.4 Numerical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 2.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 2.4.1 Solar system dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 2.4.2 Atmospheric dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 2.5 Conclusions and future developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3 Jones and Mueller matrices: structure, symmetry relations and information content S.N. Savenkov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.2 Basic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.3 Internal structure of a general Mueller–Jones matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.4 Symmetry relations for Mueller–Jones matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3.4.1 Forward scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 3.4.2 Backward scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.5 The depolarizing Mueller matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 3.5.1 Structure of the depolarizing Mueller matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 3.5.2 Matrix models of depolarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.5.3 Cloude’s coherency matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3.5.4 Block-diagonal structure of the Mueller matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 3.6 Structure and information content of the Mueller–Jones matrix in continuous medium approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 3.6.1 Mueller–Jones matrices of basic types of anisotropy and partial equivalence theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 3.6.2 Polar decomposition of Mueller–Jones matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 3.6.3 Generalized matrix equivalence theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 3.6.4 Eigenanalysis of the Jones matrices of dichroic, birefringent, and degenerate media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 3.6.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 4 Green functions for plane wave scattering on single nonspherical particles Tom Rother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 4.2 Some basic considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 4.2.1 Formulation of the scattering problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 4.2.2 Spherical coordinates and eigensolutions of the vector-wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 4.2.3 Dyadics and Green’s theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 4.3 Dyadic Green functions and light scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 4.3.1 Dyadic free-space Green function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Contents VII 4.3.2 Dyadic Green functions of the scattering problems . . . . . . . . . . . 134 4.4 Singular integral equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 4.4.1 Ideal metallic scatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 4.4.2 Dielectric scatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 4.4.3 Rayleigh’s hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 4.5 Symmetry and Unitarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 4.5.1 Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 4.5.2 Unitarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 4.6 Far-field behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 4.6.1 The plane wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 4.6.2 The scattered and total field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 4.7 Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Part II Radiative Transfer 5 Space-time Green functions for diffusive radiation transport, in application to active and passive cloud probing Anthony B. Davis, Igor N. Polonsky, Alexander Marshak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 5.1 Context, motivation, methodology, and overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 5.2 Elements of time-dependent three-dimensional radiative transfer . . . . . . 172 5.2.1 Radiant energy transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 5.2.2 Dirac-δ boundary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 5.2.3 Remotely observable fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 5.2.4 Flux-based spatial and temporal moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 5.2.5 Vertical variation of scattering coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 5.3 Formulation in the Fourier–Laplace domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 5.3.1 Temporal Green functions and pulse-stretching problems . . . . . . 187 5.3.2 Spatial Green functions and pencil-beam problems . . . . . . . . . . . 187 5.4 Diffusion approximation for opaque scattering media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 5.4.1 Derivation from the time-dependent 3D RT equation . . . . . . . . . 188 5.4.2 Directional and spatial enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 5.4.3 Boundary conditions, including boundary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 5.4.4 Remote sensing observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 5.4.5 Fourier–Laplace transformation for stratified media . . . . . . . . . . 200 5.5 Solutions of diffusive Green function problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 5.5.1 Homogeneous cloud with an isotropic boundary point-source . . 202 5.5.2 Stratified cloud with an isotropic boundary point-source . . . . . . 206 5.5.3 Homogeneous cloud with normally incident illumination at a point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 5.5.4 Homogeneous cloud with normally incident illumination at a point from above and a reflective surface below . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 5.5.5 Homogeneous cloud with uniform oblique illumination . . . . . . . . 209 5.6 Inverse Fourier–Laplace transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 5.6.1 Uniform clouds with an isotropic boundary point-source in (5.1), using exact boundary conditions in (5.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 VIII Contents 5.6.2 Uniform clouds with an isotropic internal point-source, using extended boundary conditions in (4.34) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 5.7 Temporal Green functions applied to in situ cloud lidar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 5.7.1 Forward model for the radiometric signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 5.7.2 Illustration with SNR estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 5.8 Temporal Green functions applied to oxygen A-band spectroscopy of overcast skies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 5.8.1 A-band spectroscopy as observational time-domain RT. . . . . . . . 223 5.8.2 Path-length moments from below . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 5.8.3 Path-length moments from above . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 5.9 Space-time Green functions applied to multiple-scattering cloud lidar (MuSCL) observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 5.9.1 Space-based MuSCL systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 5.9.2 Ground-based and airborne MuSCL systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 5.9.3 Moment-based methods for MuSCL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 5.9.4 Deeper mining of MuSCL observations for cloud information . . 246 5.10 Further applications to passive solar observations of clouds . . . . . . . . . . . 247 5.10.1 Operational cloud remote sensing in the solar spectrum . . . . . . . 247 5.10.2 Opacity-driven 3D radiation transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 5.10.3 The independent pixel approximation for steady/uniform illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 5.10.4 The independent pixel approximation for space/time Green functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 5.10.5 Landsat-type observations of clouds from space, and the nonlocal IPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 5.10.6 Zenith radiance reaching ground, and the nonlocal IPA . . . . . . . 255 5.10.7 Green functions at work in the adjoint perturbation approach to 3D radiation transport effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 5.11 Summary and outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 ˜ ˜ A Responses T (k) and R(k) for horizontal transport away from an isotropic boundary source in stratified clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 A.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 A.2 Transmitted light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 A.3 Reflected light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 ˆ ˆ B Responses T (s) and R(s) for pulse stretching for an isotropic boundary source in stratified clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 B.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 B.2 Transmitted light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 B.3 Reflected light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 ˜ ˜ C Responses T (k) and R(k) for steady illumination by a normally incident pencil-beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 C.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 C.2 Transmitted light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 C.3 Reflected light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 ˆ ˆ D Responses T (s) and R(s) for pulsed normal or oblique uniform illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 D.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Contents IX D.2 Transmitted light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 D.3 Reflected light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 E Scaling exponents for diffusive Green function moments from the random walk approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 E.1 Caveat about photons as ‘particles’ of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 E.2 Elements of Brownian motion theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 E.3 Transmitted light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 E.4 Reflected light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 F Scaling exponents for time-domain anomalous diffusion by extending the random walk approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 F.1 Anomalous diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 F.2 Observational validation, and evolution toward anomalous transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 6 Radiative transfer of luminescence light in biological tissue Alexander D. Klose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 6.2 Light–tissue interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 6.3 Luminescent imaging probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 6.3.1 Fluorescent probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 6.3.2 Bioluminescent probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 6.4 Radiative transfer model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 6.4.1 Equation of radiative transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 6.4.2 Partly-reflecting boundary condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 6.4.3 Partial boundary current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 6.4.4 Scattering phase function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 6.5 Bioluminescence system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 6.6 Fluorescence system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 6.6.1 Rate equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 6.6.2 Time domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 6.6.3 Frequency domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 6.6.4 Steady-state domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 6.7 Radiative transfer approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 6.7.1 Discrete ordinates method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 6.7.2 Spherical harmonics method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 6.7.3 Simplified spherical harmonics method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 6.7.4 Diffusion method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 6.8 Finite difference methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 6.8.1 Step-differencing method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 6.8.2 Diamond-differencing method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 6.8.3 Centered-differencing method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 6.9 Solution methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 6.9.1 Source iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 6.9.2 GMRES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 6.9.3 Multigrid methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 6.10 Light propagation example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 X Contents 6.11 Image reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 6.11.1 Optimization techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 6.11.2 Algebraic reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 6.12 Image reconstruction example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 6.13 Summary and concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 A Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 A.1 Boundary coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 A.2 Coefficients for partial current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 7 The characteristic equation of radiative transfer theory N.N. Rogovtsov, F.N. Borovik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 7.2 Statement of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 7.2.1 The classical variant of the characteristic equation of radiation transfer theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 7.2.2 Reducing the classical variant of the characteristic equation of radiative transfer theory to the family of reduced characteristic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 7.3 Solving the classical variant of the characteristic equation of the radiative transfer theory in an analytical form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 7.3.1 General properties of discrete spectra and eigenfunctions of the reduced characteristic equations of the radiative transfer theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 7.3.2 Obtaining solutions of inhomogeneous reduced characteristic equations of radiative transfer theory in an analytical form . . . . 371 7.3.3 Substantiation of the algorithm for calculating discrete spectra of reduced characteristic equations of radiative transfer theory . 378 7.3.4 On the stability of solutions of reduced characteristic equations and infinite systems of linear algebraic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 7.4 Analytical presentation of azimuthal harmonics of Green’s function of the radiative transfer equation for the case of an infinite plane-parallel turbid medium and an arbitrary phase function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 7.5 Effective algorithm to calculate the azimuthally averaged reflection function and the reflection function for a semi-infinite plane-parallel turbid medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 7.5.1 General invariance relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 7.5.2 Asymptotical formulas for the azimuthal harmonics of Green’s function of the radiative transfer equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 7.5.3 Integral equations and formal analytical representations of the azimuthally averaged reflection function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 7.5.4 Numerical results for the case of water cloud C.1 model . . . . . . . 403 7.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 Appendix A: General mathematical notations, notions and constructions . . . . 408 Appendix B: Metric spaces and their simplest properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 Appendix C: Linear, normed and Banach spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

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