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Liability Under Uncertainty: Evidential Deficiency and the Law of Torts PDF

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UC Berkeley Berkeley Program in Law and Economics, Working Paper Series Title Liability Under Uncertainty: Evidential Deficiency and the Law of Torts Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2db3b43m Author Porat, Ariel Publication Date 1999-06-29 eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California hcr a,M529991 To: The participants of the Law and Economics Seminar, Boalt Hall School of Law From: Ariel Porat ,stn arpaiecDitrap e l sc mn iigoixrt tnreeo fariftlsrfaawSAs eoro e nt dlefhripalhoto aoTrihkahfPwtocu oaIb-oc d ,eymltetil isa ft rswoeeuehvrrtiebnJeUH Liability Under Uncertainty: Evidential Deficiency and the Law of Torts .y)tsis sedrrrePovfixnOU( sdr ieeyhhtlTsp lia salhnanbciwiugpi r 8oo1zod rw aawCLei v1.e9)R871991( n o,lsi yin snar oe sodp, irteunA5lrstashcolet soTsMif ndemiweos.engdrte9magg5mua-osp2C .emoclew LIABILITY FOR UNCERTAINTY: MAKING EVIDENTIAL DAMAGE ACTIONABLE ARIEL PORAT* & ALEX STEIN** le iTrHAGIRYPOC .nie txS e tl&aAroP * gnitisiV ,rosseforP tlaoB llaH loohcS fo ,waL ytisrevinU fo ainrofilaC ta ;yelekreB etaicossA,rosseforP )38 9.1B( ..LyLtisrev ivniUvA- l,e wTyfatoLlucaF .)ytisrev ivniUvA-l e)T0(9 9.1D(. S;.J ** etai croossssAeforP dna eciV ,naeD ytlucaF foL ,wa werbeH ytisrevinU fo .melasureJ .B.LL ;)3891(.M.LL .)no d ynftooiLsrevi n)U0(9 9.1D (.;h)Pmelas u yrfteoiJsrev iwneUrb e)H7(891( stfar Dfo se ildhc etiettrnree Awstearp ayrtaln uid cmly aeetlfsh io nsoyrrhbeec tvSf sioeenhwUthwtarLoN dn ad etta cptnuoai d hmane saoh.kjctNrnoewB o zloodorhacC Sfo y t , iawhsvatriLoehbvs(ie nYnUi.)6991 ehT srohtua era lufetarg ot eht stnapicitrap ni htob .stneve lacitirC stnemmoc dna snoitseg gduesviecermorf noR ,nellA moT ,rekaB learsI ,daeliG leahciM ,zreH ruhtrA ,nosbocaJ dnumdE ,hctiK nahpetS ,namsdnaL nhoJ ,sinniGcM elaD ,ecnaN Tal ,inahS luaP ,kcapuhS ennazuS ,enotS ivA ,hcabaT selrahC ,nolbaYdna irmO .detaicerpp atso mer anildaY traP fo eh thcr agensiedrael ot sih telcitrA s adwetcudno cni ,599 1gnirud xel As'nie ttSisiv ot eyhttisrevinU fo imaiM loohcS fo .waL gniruD siht ,emit eh detifeneb morf hcraese recnatsissa ylba dedivorp ybrefinneJ grebdloG dna aici rzteadPnanr esHsalc( .)6 9l9a1noi thicdrdaAeser saw ylba dedivorp ot mih yb Noa Katzir ssalc( ,5991 ytlucaF fo ,waL werbeH ytisrevinU fo .)melasureJ siH sknaht osla og ot eht nimajneB.N nyitilatips os htr iow faflLoooh coSzodraC .6991 gnirpS OUTLINE esuaceB lautcaf ytniatrecnu strotsid eht noitacolla fo livic ,ytilibail siht elcitrAseugra taht eht wal dluohs esopmi liability for uncertainty . deifitsuJ no htob evitcerroc ecitsujdna cimonoce ycneiciffe ,sdnuorg siht ytilibail dluohs eb desopmi nopu yna nosrep ohw yltnegilgen setavargga eht ytniatrecnu fo a livic esac yb gnikam sti laitnedive esab.tneicifed esuaceB "ecnedive" sgnoleb ot eht dlrow fo secnerefni rehtar naht ,sgniht laitnediveegamad yam eb detcilfni ni a yteirav fo ,syaw raf dn onyoeibtcurtsed fo stnemucod dna rehtolacisyhp gnirepmat htiw .ecnedive hguorhT noitpoda dna tnemenifer fo siht ,thgisni eht elcitrA sesongaid eht ecneserp fo laitnedive egamad ni ynam yllagel tnatrop m,isgnittes hcus sassam ,strot lacidem ,ecitcarplam erusopxe ot ksir dna tnemyolpme .noitanimircsid tI oslaseifitnedi a rebmun fo lagel senirtcod taht eldnah eht laitnedive egamad melborp yltceridni dnasuht tpmetta ot evloser ti nihtiw eht worran epocs fo rieht .noitacilppa dezicitirC yb eht elcitrAsa depolevedrednu smrof fo ytilibail rof laitnedive ,egamad eseht senirtcod era degru oteb deca. lyypt beierlv iit bsinancaie ilhdlenpraxpemoc morF eht evitcerroc ecitsuj ,evitcepsrep laitnedive egamad dluohs eb elbanoitca esuaceb a nosrep gniniatsus hcus a egamad si devirped fo noitamrofni ot hcihw ehssaw .deltitne sihT noitavirped sekam reh ssel suomonotua ni gniusrup reh lagel sthgir dnaosla sehsinimid eht tnemeltte seulav fo reh .esac morF eht cimo nyoccnee i,ctinfifoepywteiilvibail rof laitnedive egamad lliw evres owt :sesoprup sa na evitnecni rof elpoep otylevitceffe-tsoc l a tientgenavemeda riddpvnea sa a e lnc oigih nteriavozc fiofmloiltap oe hytr aemgiarmpadni sno.iytti ndfinoaotcrecnu ehT elcitrA osla spoleved a laidemer msinahcem rof sesac gnivlovni laitnedive .egamad gniwarD nopu emag ,yroeht siht msinahcem sezitenom laitnedive egamad yb gnirapmoc eht egamad-tsop tnemelttes eulav fo eht esac htiw sti egamad-erp eulav ni ayaw taht sedulcerp htob noitasnepmocrednu dna noitasnepmocrevo fo eht detcilffa .ytrap nIsesac taht emaceb yllaitnedive degamad hguorht tluaf fo eno fo eht ,stnagitil siht msinahcemsi deifitrof yb a noitacollaer fo eht noisausrep nedrub ot eht tifeneb fo eht detcilffa .ytrapyB gnizylana htob eht scimonoce dna eht nairatilage tsac fo eht selur gnillortnoc eht nedrubfo ,foorp eht elcitrA setartsnomed taht sti desoporp gnitfihs fo eht ksir fo noisausrep-nonlliw yect.n os ehmsditoencornaibprfifaef TABLE OF CONTENTS I. I NOITCUDORTN II. T EH N F OERUTA E LAITNEDIV D EGAMA III. E LAITNEDIV D DN AEGAMA P SSECOR C STNIARTSNO IV. E LAITNEDIV D DN AEGAMA C EVITCERRO J ECITSU (a) the liability standard (b) the compensation problem V. E LAITNEDIV D EGAMA DNA D ECNERRETE (a) convergence between the two objectives exemplified (b) tension between the two objectives exemplified (c) the victim's burden (d) negligence or strict liability? VI. E LAITNEDIV D S AEGAMA E ECNEDIV L WA D ENIRTCO (a) evidential damage from the efficiency perspective (b) evidential damage from the fairness perspective (b1) evidential damage under the civility principle (b2) evidential damage under the equality principle (c) a caveat VII. E EUGOLIP I. INTRODUCTION lautcaF ytniatrecnu gnitluser morf gnissim ecnedive si a tneilas erutaef foyreve detagitil .esac etulosbA ytniatrec si .elbaniattanulaiciduJ 1 snoisiced suht syawlaevlovni ksir fo .rorre sihT ksir tonnac eb yllatot .detanimile tuB ti si thguos ot eb deziminimyb gnisaercni eht tnuoma fo evitaborp ecnedive taht sdeen ot eb deredisnoc yb eht sreirtfo fact 2 . gnissiM ecnedive dluohs erofereht eb deviecrep sa a gnigamad .rotcafnoitcurtseD ,feocned isvae nlol ieltwaacc iifssdoayahr pe e-sv ynti,loite gnaudnbllioaudrvorphoscca eb deviecrep sa gnitcilfni-egamad .snoitca dluoW hcus snoitca evah yna lagel ?secneuqesnoc dluohS yeht evah ?yna tahW era dna tahw dluohs eb eht airetircrof gnibircsa ytilibail ot a nosrep gnitcilfni laitnedive ?egamad tahW era dna tahw dluohseb ?e gg hanecmilu anbsodia t alnst ioesaasiuv rdsaeeehpmter ytn ihea gvtsuiriosehac tvnnlruiAe pht olbiv i lc,dassn nnlaeioasmiieitrhrsttceuq era ylerar thguorb ot eht erof fo eht lagel .tnemugra nI lanimirc ,noitagitil erehwyna elbanosaer tbuod stifeneb eht desucca -- ohw si yllareneg demuserp ot eb tneconnilitnu nevorp ytliug -- eseht snoitseuq era ylevitaler .tnacifingisni yehT ,era ,revewohtnatropmi ni livic ,slairt erehw ytilibail rof ytniatrecnu yam yalp a yllaitnetop evisiced elorni gninimreted eht 'stnagitil .sthgir ,sselehtenoN livic stnagitil ylerar esiar esoht,snoitseuq hcihw yb on snaem si elbatubirtta ot roop .gnireywal esohT snoitseuq era ylerardesiar y tl eiaesl ig uirtadabonmecafea zeiddsibliin vgyeobce reht wal y llna,ons oenisitapcecxe yllacipyt gnivlovni lanoitnetni noitcurtsed ro noisserppus fo latovip .ecnedive tcejbuSot eseht ,snoitpecxe hcihw era tey ot ezillatsyrc otni enil-thgirb ,selur laitnedive egamadsi yllarenegelbaidemerri 3 . sihT egamad si suht ylegra ldezilanretni yb eht detcilffa ytrapsa a damnum sine injuria . nI emos ,sgnittes eht laitnedive egamad melborp si delkcat yltceridni yb a rebmun fo trot wal dna tcartnoc wal ,senirtcod hcihw edivorp ehtdetcilffa 1 sihT dna detaler smret lliw eb desu tuohguorht siht elcitrA ,yllacireneg sa gnirrefer ot htobsegduj .s rdonrauj 2 See generally ,ni ext eSlA The Refoundation of Evidence Law, C 9 .NA J&. L.J .SIRU .)6991 (97 2 3 See generally J EIMA .S G ,KCILERO S NEHPET M NEZRA & L ECNERWA S ,MULO D NOITCURTSE FO E ECNEDIV 9891 (4&2.shc .)5 9d9e1dne p;pa 6 stnagitil a detimil tes fo ad hoc seidemer 4 . esehT detnemgarf ,seidemer ,revewohllaf .melb oegrhnpti v tlfroooshs ylralohcS sgnitirw evah tlaed htiw eht snoitseuq detneserp ta eht testuo nia ylhgih detnemgarf dna citametsysnu .noihsaf sihT tcelgen nac yltrap eb debircsa oteht tceridni lanirtcod snoitulos fo eht laitnedive egamad ,melborp hcihw degreme nitnereffid .snoitcidsiruj tA a lareneg delpicnirp ,level siht tcelgen sah on tnerappa .noitacifitsujsA dluoc eb ,detcepxe eruliaf ot tnorfnoc eht melborp yltcerid sah derednegneseitluciffid no ifs toeea .ihcnw ltiia ealldhmpntopanaa sih Te lsctintorrAfn oecht me lyblotrcperid yb gnisuc onfopu liv i.cslairt tIseugra taht laitnedive egamad dluohs ebelbanoitca 5 . traP II fo siht elcitrA setacilpxe ehterutan fo laitnedive egamad dna sedivorp a rebmun fo selpmaxe hcihw tibihxe htob eht ecnatropmi dna eht ssenevisavrep fo eht laitnedive egamad .melborp rehtruFselpmaxe era dedivorp ni traP ,III hcihw sessucsid dna sevomer a ylgnimees lufrewop noitcejboot gnikam laitnedive egamad .elbanoitca sihT noitcejbo si dednuorg ni eht ssecorp""yroeht fo trot ytilibail taht seifitsuj laitnereffid tnemtaert fo prima facie elbahsiugnitsidni egamad snoitautis yb eht sgnivas fo noitagitil stsoc elbaniatta hguorht ytilibail-non.selur eW eugra taht siht yroeht sah a detimil evitamron ecrof dna dluohs ton rab yrevocerrof l.aeigtanmeaddive straP VI dna V tcudnoc a evitamron yriuqni otni eht noitseuq fo ytilibailrof laitnedive .egamad sihT noitseuq si denimaxe morf owt etanretla ,stniopweiv tahtfo evitcerroc ecitsuj dna taht fo .ecnerreted seidemeR tnadnetta nopu ytilibail roflaitnedive egamad era osla denimaxe morf hcae fo eseht .stniopweiv eW poleved a,msinahcem elbatius rof htob ecnerreted dna evitcerroc ecitsuj ,smetsys yb hcihw laitnediveegamad nac eb decuder ot .yenom ehT mia tes rof si hmtsinahcem si ot droffa eht thgir tnuomafo noitasnepmoc ot a nosrep esohw tnemeltitne ot laitnedive noitamrofni sawylsuoitrot deyor t ys rbe.ednhotsorneap rednU eht evitcerroc ecitsuj ,tnuocca ew taert siht tnemeltitne sa a elbaulav tnanimreted fo a s'nosrep .ymonotua noitcurtseD fo siht tnemeltitne si gnigamad ot a nosrep esuaceb ti sriapmi reh ytiliba ot esicrexe reh ssueoc migoo nnhniocic trruoe afhl.nas e gtd eeh en rlgetodoihcslfrTirueleorefphebfshat 4 See noissuc sid infra.txet gniynapmocca dna 62-6.nn , 5 .foo r fpnoedr ueb hgtnitfi hgsnidulc n,isserd elrag eyl n oastref e"relbanoitcA" 7 detasnepmoc rof eht eulav fo eht tsol .noitamrofni esuaceB siht noitamrofni dluoc ebfo eulav ylno neewteb eht seitrap ot eht gniylrednu ,noitagitil sti evitaborp laitnetopdluohs eb detalsnart otni eht detcilffa s'ytrap ytilibaborp ot liaverp ni eht .noitagitillaitnedivE egamad yam suht osla eb denimreted yb sti tcapmi no eht s'noitagitil tnemelttes,eulav hcihw lliw evlovni na detacilpmocnu noitacilppa fo eht emag .yroeht ynA noitcuderni eht eulav fo eht detcilffa s'ytrap taerht-noitagitil siv-a-siv reh tnenoppo dluohs eb dr e .ostnyfiaiahswtnepmoc rednU eht ecnerreted ,yroeht na tnemeltitne ot laitnedive noitamrofni si detaicossa htiw sti .eulav-hturt sseL laitnedive egamad snaem erom noitamrofni dnasuht retaerg ycneiciffe ni gnitnemelpmi eht gnillort neovcitnatsbus .wal sihT yb flestiseifitsuj ytilibail rof laitnedive .egamad ecnadiovA fo laitnedive ,egamad ,revewoh tsum oslaeb detcudnoc nihtiw eht sdnuob fo .ycneiciffe stI stsoc dluohs erofereht reven deecxeeht tsoc fo eht .egamad trapA morf ,taht ytilibail rof laitnedive egamad dluohs tnuocca rofsti tcapmi nopu eht noitacolla fo eht yramirp .segamad tI dluohs suht eb desopmi ni ayaw .nyo t isn s te ifn eazyaooeg cirtihatefo marttmaholnimeiahtliticddtaprnnopuoc ruO noissucsid lliw suht etartsnomed taht laitnedive ,egamad nehw detcilfni ,yltnegilgen dluohs yllamron eb elbanoitca ni .strot sihT noisulcnoc seod ,ton,revewoh tsuahxe eht gnitsixe egnar fo ylevitamron elbaniatsus .seitilibissop traP ,IV hcihw sessucsid eht gnin i,aymteirlibiss ospevael eht niarret fo strot yb gnivom ot ecnedive.wal s etnI iemha txa e ey ldt eaiigg i lnaftriimonob taefasaddiaeilrvte g andintua ocrrooglflaer eht ksir fo noisausrep-non ni eht yllaitnediv edegamad .lairt gnidroccA ot siht ,aedinehw both parties liaf ot egrahcsid eht gnillortnoc dradnats fo foorp ,yllacipyt( taht fo ecnarednoperp fo eht )ecnedive segduj dluohs elur tsniaga eht ytrap elbisnopser rofeht laitnedive .egamad gniyfidoM eht lanigiro noitacolla fo eht noisausrep-non ,ksirsiht noitulos fo eht melborp si t.oenvisn e,hyelrlpamuoscU ti dluow eb elbaliava ylnotsniaga eht tnadnefed ni na yllaitnedive degamad .lairt laitnedivE egamad detcilfni ybsregnarts nac eb elbanoitca ylno ni .strot troT ,seidemer ,revewoh era osla .detimil yehT dluowton syawla eb etauqeda nehw deilppa tsniaga a ytrap ot eht yllaitnedive degamad .lairtnI ynam ,sesac noitacollaer fo eht noisausrep nedrub dluow etutitsnoc a retteb .ydemertroT wal dna ecnedive wal smsinahcem dluohs erofereht tnemelpmoc hcae rehto ,hcihw , d . sexsei euih fdrstronceuihot 8 ruO snoisulcnoc ni straP IV-III suht enibmoc otni eht gniwollof evitamron :emehcs )1( laitnedivE egamad dluohs eb elbanoitca ni strot rednu ehtecnegilgen ;enirtcod )2( nI a lairt taht emac eybllaitne d,idveegamad a ytrap elbisnopser rofeht egamad dluohs etasnepmoc eht detcilffa ytrap ,ro nehw ,etairporppayrrac .enho tikssaiurs rfeop-non tuohguorhT eht ,elcitrA ew noitnem eht syaw htob( ticilpxe dna )ticilpmini hcihw eht naciremA-olgnA lagel smetsys tpmetta ot evloser eht laitnedive egamad .melborp sihT si enod ni redro ot rehtruf tibihxe eht segatnavda fo gnignirb ehtlaitnedive eegnaimratdc oodt eht erof fo e h.t els areguteo alcer sWttlisa adnhgiotntminekedadmive egamad elbanoitca lliw evomer eht smelborp yltnerruc devlovni ni eht noitacilppafo lareves lagel .senirtcod esehT senirtcod ,edulcni inter alia , eht trot fo ecnedive noitailops 6 ,erahs-tekram 7 dna esirpretneytilibail 8 , evitanretla trotytilibail 9 dna eht-ksir 6 I.e. .ecned itvneatro pem minfooositcurt s reyodtfilib a,il See kcileroG et al ,. supra ,3. n .shc 2.&4 7 sihT enirtcod seilppa nehw a rebmun fo srerutcafunam yletarapes ecudorp na lacitneditcudorp hcih wsnrut tuo ot e.bgnigam andI yna hcus ,esac fi eht ega mtaodnnac deebifitng ensdiaitanigiro morf eno fo eht ,srerutcafunam hcae fo meht lliw evah ot etasnepmoc eht detcilffa nosrepni noitroporp ot sih erahs ni eht .tekram See .WP EGA K ,NOTEE P RESSOR &K NOTEE ON T STRO .) 4 ,8 h.91td145e§( 8 ,rteucb uldao urtdkdp o ec ienecao v gnbabtsidaartdemctintai adsn geeei ihhtelwtinplip rastichoTd si nwohs ot evah detanigiro morf a ralucitrap yrtsudni ta .egral ynA rerutcafuna mgnitapicitrapni taht yrtsudni lliw ylgnidrocca eb .elbail See llaH .v .I.E uD tnoP eD sruomeN & .oC ,.cnI543 .)2 7.9Y 1.3.N5p(3puS.F 9 e RhogttnidroccA TNEMETATSE ,d2T ,STRO :swollo fs asdlo henirtco dsih t,B334 § )2(" erehW eht suoitrot tcudnoc fo owt ro erom srotca sah denibmoc ot gnirb tuoba a mrah oteht ,ffitnialp dna eno ro erom fo eht srotca skees ot timil sih ytilibail no eht dnuorg taht eht mrahsi elbapac fo tnemnoitroppa gnoma ,meht eht nedrub fo foorp sa ot eht tnemnoitroppa si nopuhcae .rotca hcus te)c r3 uee(fdhh ontWoow c ts rreo orstoicma ,suoitro tdna ti si devorp taht mrah sah neebdesuac ot f feihttn iyablp ylno eno fo ,meh ttu ber eyhttn isai tsraecnu ot hcih we ndoesu a,cti e hntedrubsi .mra heh tdesua cto nsa he htah tevor po trotc ahcu shca enopu ". 9 egamad-saenirtcod 10 . ruO tnemugra yllauqe seilppa ot owt tcartnoc wal senirtcodtaht nac eb deviecrep sa gnildnah eht laitnedive egamad melborp .yltceridni esehTsenirtcod ssuc setoiwoddn 11 . ehT cificeps senirtcod gnilaed htiw eht melborp ta dnah evah nayltnerehni detimil epocs fo .noitacilppa sA ,hcus yeht edivorp a rebmun fo detanidroocnu dacoh snoitulos ot eht ,melborp hcihw tonnac eb .yrotcafsitas nI sesac gnivlovnierahs-tekram ,ytilibail evitanretla trot ,ytilibail dna eht egamad-sa-ksir ,enirtcod siht noitatimil si .tnerapsnart esehT senirtcod era denifnoc ot rieht ralucitrap lautcaf .snrettap yehTosla eldnah eht laitnedive egamad melborp ylno ylticilpmi dna suht .yltceridni ,ecneHrieht noitulos ot eht melborp si ton ,yelteerlepmm otcunbi yam osla eebtauqe dnaenvienihtiw eht worran epocs fo rieht .noitacilppa sA detartsnomed tuohguorht siht ,elcitrA ehtniam melborp gnittespu eht noitacilppa fo eseht senirtcod seil ni eht ecneserp-non fo eht lait neegdaimvaed gsnaillroorttcnao fca-ytilibail 12 . 10 ,ylemaN eht laisrevortnoc enirtcod gnitaert erab ksir sa na elbanoitca .trot See infra , 63-23.nndna . tgxneitynapmocca 11 enO fo ese h,tsenirtc ondwonk sa contra proferentem , sdloh taht lautcar tsneoictiugibma dluohseb erlobfisno psseemr oycletbneuqe syn to src.iathpcTar tdenehottc fyoa thrterwdshantp idaegvaloser elhati t.neegdaimvaed nI ehtR TNEMETATSE ,d2C ,STCARTNO ,602§ siht enirtcod sidetalumrof :swoll osfa nI" gnisoohc gnoma eht elbanosaer sgninaem fo a esimorp ro tnemeerga ro a mret ,foerehttaht gninaem si yllareneg derreferp hcihw setarepo tsniaga eht ytrap ohw seilppus eht sdrow romorf ".sdeec oerspiwre hgtnoit i ermhwothw rednU eht dnoces ,enirtcod hcihw seilppa n itcartnoc-fo-h c,aseersbac lautca fycanimretedni foeht noitatcepxe segamad swolla eht deveirgga ytrap ot revocer eht ecnailer segamad neve nehweseht dl uyot wrdaepveir get ghanathotitag e .lntlAsaere tnnoiitatc e eprfu xeollehaavu tedcheate cyxaem e vdaehr rsuecsnsiol fi e httcart nedorecemwrofr espi s udhetriuqe rot ylt nd aeervbeodrnpopyebrp eht ytrap ni .hcaerb See R TNEMETATSE 2d, C STCARTNO §349 ; .EA NALL F ,HTROWSNRA C STCARTNO 039 d2( ,.de .)0991 sihT enirtcod nac eb deifitsuj yb eht tcaf taht ehtlaitnedive d eytebch i t,lstfasnweir entoniitatc esp'xy etdrea vpne oi fireotghagtnai mdr ee,ot tetasegladaemrad .tca rh tcfnaooecrb lei rnlAiiat enddiessucs ie drsaenirtc ocdifice prseh td oneasehT tar o, &PnxieeltAS The Evidential Damage Doctrine: A Positive Analysis of the Law 21 yenuyI .)8991 (19 1taphsiM 12 slia treodF see ,niet S&taroP id.

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the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, titled Liability Under Uncertainty: Evidential Deficiency and the Law of . In some settings, the evidential damage problem is tackled indirectly by a number of tort law and contract law doctrines, which provide the afflicted. 1 .. See Wigmore, supra n.17, VOL. I,
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