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Journal of the Institute for Euroregional Studies “Jean Monnet” European Centre of Excellence University of Oradea University of Debrecen Volume 11 Leaders of the Borders, Borders of the Leaders Edited by Cristina-Maria DOGOT, Philippe PERCHOC & TÖKÉS Tibor References by Roberto FARNETI, Marianne LEFEVRE Spring 2011 Eurolimes Journal of the Institute for Euroregional Studies “Jean Monnet” European Centre of Excellence Editors-in-chief: Ioan HORGA (Oradea) and Istvan SULI-ZAKAR (Debrecen) Executive Editor: Sorin ŞIPOŞ (Oradea) Spring 2011 Volume 11 Leaders of the Borders, Borders of the Leaders Edited by Cristina-Maria DOGOT, Philippe PERCHOC & TÖKÉS Tibor Honorary Members Paul Alliès (Montpellier), Peter Antes (Hanover), Enrique Banús (Barcelona), Robert Bideleux (Swansea), Erhard Busek (Wien), Jean Pierre Colin (Reims), George Contogeorgis (Athene), Gerard Delanty (Sussex), György Enyedi (Budapest), Sharif Gemie (Glamorgan), Chris G. Quispel (Leiden), Moshe Idel (Jerulalem), Jarosław Kundera (Wroclaw), Ariane Landuyt (Siena), Thomas Lundén (Stockholm), Kalypso Nicolaidis (Oxford), Adrian Miroiu, (Bucureşti), Frank Pfetsch (Heidelberg), Andrei Marga, Ioan Aurel Pop, Vasile Puşcaş, Vasile Vesa (Cluj-Napoca), Mercedes Samaniego Boneau (Salamanca), Angelo Santagostino (Brescia), Maria Manuela Tavares Ribeiro (Coimbra), Dusan Sidjanski (Geneve), Maurice Vaïsse (Paris) Advisory Committee Josef Abrhám (Prague), Iordan Bărbulescu, Simona Miculescu, Mihai Răzvan Ungureanu (Bucureşti), Teresa Pinheiro (Chemnitz) Cristina Blanco Sio-Lopez (Luxembourg) Czimre Klára, Kozma Gábor, Teperics Károly (Debrecen), Rozália Biró, Antonio Faur, Alexandru Ilieş, Rodica Petrea, Sorin Şipoş, Barbu Ştefănescu, Ion Zainea (Oradea), Ovidiu Ghitta, Adrian Ivan, Nicoale Păun, Radu Preda (Cluj-Napoca), Margarita Chabanna (Kiev), Juan Manuel de Faramiňán Gilbert (Jaen), Didier Francfort (Nancy), Tamara Gella (Orel), Ion Gumenâi, Octavian Ţîcu (Chişinău), Karoly Kocsis (Miskolc), Cătălina Iliescu (Alicante), Savvas Katsikides (Nicosia), Anatoly Kruglashov (Chernivtsi), Renaud de La Brosse (Reims), Giuliana Laschi (Bologna), Stephan Malovic (Zagreb), Maria Marczewska-Rytko, Bogumiła Mucha-Leszko (Lublin), Fabienne Maron (Brussels), Ivan Nacev, (Sofia), Carlos Eduardo Pacheco do Amaral (Asores), Alexandru-Florin Platon (Iaşi), Mykola Palinchak, Viktoriya Bokoch, Svitlana Mytryayeva (Uzhgorod), Stanislaw Sagan (Rzeszow), Grigore Silaşi (Timişoara), Lavinia Stan (Halifax), George Tsurvakas (Tessalonik), Peter Terem (Banska Bystrica), Esther Gimeno Ugalde (Wien), Jan Wendt (Gdansk) Editorial Committee Ioana Albu, Ambrus Attila, Mircea Brie, Mariana Buda, Carmen Buran, Florentina Chirodea, Lia Derecichei, Cristina-Maria Dogot, Dorin Dolghi, Diana Gal, (Oradea), Olha Yehorova (Uzhgorod) Natalia Cugleşan, Dacian Duna (Cluj-Napoca), Andreas Blomquist (Stockholm), Nicolae Dandis (Cahul), Molnar Ernő, Penzes Janos, Radics Zsolt, Tőmőri Mihály (Debrecen), Bohdana Dimitrovova (Belfast), Mariana Cojoc (Constanţa), Sinem Kokamaz (Izmir), George Angliţoiu, Oana Ion, George Lăzăroiu, Florin Lupescu, Adrian Niculescu, Nicolae Toderaş (Bucureşti), Anca Oltean, Dana Pantea, Istvan Polgar, Irina Pop, Adrian Popoviciu, Alina Stoica, Luminiţa Şoproni, Constantin Ţoca (Oradea), Laura Sicilione (Siena), Viktoryia Serzhanova (Rzeszow) Assistant Editor (English): Daniela Blaga Editorial Assistant: Elena Zierler The full responsibility regarding the content of the papers belongs exclusively to the authors. Address: University of Oradea 1st Universitatii Street 410087-Oradea/Romania Tel/fax: +40.259.467.642 e-mail: [email protected] www.iser.rdsor.ro Engraving by Pierre Tardieu, in M. Lapie, Atlas universel de geographie ancienne et moderne, Paris, 1838, p. 15. „Lucian Blaga” University Library, Cluj-Napoca, Stampe Collection. Eurolimes is a half-yearly journal. Articles and book reviews may be sent to the above mentioned address. The journal may be acquired by contacting the editors Journal of the Institute for Euroregional Studies (IERS) is issued with the support of the Action Jean Monnet of the European Commission and in the Co- Edition with Bruylant (Brussels) Oradea University Press ISSN-L: 1841-9259 ISSN 2247 / 8450 Cuprins ◊ Contents ◊ Sommaire ◊ Inhalt ◊ Tartalom Cristina DOGOT (Oradea), Philippe PERCHOC (Paris), TÖKÉS Tibor (Debrecen) ◄► Leaders, Borders and Changes - Introduction - ........................................................... 5 I. Political Leadership and the Borders of Europe during the Cold War ........................ 9 Florin ABRAHAM (Bucharest) ◄► Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej and Romania‟s Eastern Neighbourhood ........................................................................................................ 11 Valentina GÎDEA (Cluj-Napoca), Lucian BOGDAN (Cluj-Napoca) ◄► From Consensus to Mutual Distrust and Back: The Shifting Boundaries of Free Europe in the Twentieth Century ................................................................................................... 30 Anca OLTEAN (Oradea) ◄► The Jews of Romania and their Immigration to Israel. 1948-1953 ............................................................................................................... 41 Ljiljana MANIC (Belgrade), Nada TORLAK (Belgrade), Natasa SIMEUNOVIC BAJIC (Belgrade)◄► Tito, Yugoslavia, and the „Third Way”: Understanding Physical and Symbolic Borders .............................................................................................. 55 II. United Europe, Europe of the leaders: European borders from 6 to (+)27............... 63 Radu CARP (Bucharest) ◄► Modernisation envers secularisme ? La transformation de la Turquie ante portas .................................................................................................. 65 Helga ZICHNER (Leipzig), Bettina BRUNS (Leipzig) ◄► Within a “Ring of Secure Third Countries”: Regional and Local Effects of the Extraterritorial Engagement of the European Union in Belarus, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova ..................... 78 Andreea Crina HOREA (Cluj-Napoca) ◄► Europe‟s Gordian Knot. Germany ................. 89 Licia BAGINI (Poitiers) ◄► Quelles frontières pour le Trentin-Haut Adige/Südtirol? .... 104 Denis ROLLAND (Strasbourg) ◄► Le Conseil de l‟Europe en 2010: une vieille institution pour un projet moderne? Éléments de réflexion et d‟historiographie...... 118 III. The Place of the Leaders after the end of the Cold War: the Disappearance/Appearance of the Borders ........................................................... 127 REMÉNYI Péter (Pecs) ◄► An Emerging Border of an Emerging State? The Case of the IEBL and the Republika Srpska of Bosnia-Herzegovina ......................................... 129 Monica OPROIU (Bucharest) ◄► Slobodan Milosevic and the Violent Transformation of Borders in Former Yugoslavia ........................................................................... 142 Giulia PRELZ OLTRAMONTI (Brussels) ◄► Borders, Boundaries, Ceasefire Lines and de Facto Borders: The Impact of Mobility Policies ................................................. 157 TÖMÖRI Mihály (Debrecen) ◄► The Role of the “DebOra” Cross-Border Eurometropolis in the Hungarian-Romanian CBC Relations a Case Study of Shopping Tourism in Debrecen and Oradea............................................................ 170 Adriana POPESCU (Oradea), Ludovic NICA (Oradea) ◄► Regionalism in a Europe Without Borders Some Approaches on Bihor County ............................................. 179 IV. Focus ........................................................................................................................ 193 Erhard BUSEK (Wien) ◄► Moving Borders .................................................................. 194 Book reviews .................................................................................................................. 199 Mariana BUDA (Oradea) ◄► La lutte des orgueils politiques ou la conquête de l‟or noir ?! .................................................................................................................... 200 4 Mariana BUDA (Oradea)◄► La géopolitique, un instrument sine qua non dans l‟organisation mondiale.......................................................................................... 202 Cristina-Maria DOGOT (Oradea) ◄► Eastern European Frontier and Cross-Border Cooperation ........................................................................................................... 206 Constantin Vasile ŢOCA (Oradea) ◄► Regional Development and Cross-Border Cooperation: A Basis for the Multilevel Governance? ............................................ 210 About the Authors ......................................................................................................... 215 Leaders, Borders and Changes - Introduction - Cristina DOGOT1, Philippe PERCHOC2, TÖKÉS Tibor3 The issue of leadership or more precisely of political leadership has been increasingly present in the public space, especially due to researchers within the field of Humanities. Historians, sociologists, political analysts or economists have been trying to explain the different socio- political situations where the political leaders have a major influence, either visible or not, more or less explicit, more or less important. This interest is entirely understandable in an era when political leaders are closer to the society than ever, not because political leaders are physically closer to people, but mainly because media makes them seem so. More than before, the decision-makers, the political leaders can be observed in real time, when they are working, meeting with colleagues or friends, when they are walking or even marrying. This deep interrelation of two parts which are virtually present has accentuated both the common and the specialized interest for political leaders, although this interest is far away from being a characteristic only of the highly technologized era. This preoccupation for the leaders, for the head of a society has existed forever4: what else was the interest of Plato, Aristotle, Hobbes, Locke or Rouseau for authority, hierarchy or power? What else was the interest of Thomas d‟Aquino for the different names given to authority? What else was the interest of Machiavelli for the prince? All these references offer us a very basic overview on the oldness and diversity of the ideas concerning the political leadership. But, despite of the fact that classical approaches are still current, the novelty of political leadership results from the actual magnitude of the interest for this matter, an interest which is likely to be satisfied by technology. Howewer, despite the interest in the topic, the authors of this Eurolimes issue have not proposed such an approach. Hence, almost no matter the historical period researched within domains or sub-domains such as History, Political History, Political Psychology, Political Analysis, International Relations, Polemology, Stasiology, Irenology etc., approaching the matter of political leadership and its influences on the different political events happened at national or international political level and often at the level of different social spaces; this is really important for all these sub-domains. Behind every political event there is a political decision, and behind every political decision there is a political leader, frequently regarded as being the main or yet the single decision maker. It is difficult to accept, especially for the democratic regimes, that only one leader might be able and could have the authority, capability, the power or the potential to affect the evolution of a region, of a state or yet of the world, to change, sometimes dramatically, the lives of individuals and societies (because, and history has demonstrated this too often, the border changes were too often the source of drama, especially for the common people). Nevertheless, although there are many constraints and factors which influence the decision making process and the decision maker on his/her capacity to decide and to lead, leaders and decisions are constantly the most obvious in this equation, with numerous unknown variables for the common people. Therefore, as political decision produces more dramatic effects in the life of different communities, this one is probably to be associated with the leader who announced and implemented the respective political decision. This Eurolimes Journal issue, i.e. Leaders of the Borders, Borders of the Leaders, brings together the best articles presented at the conference with the same name, and focuses on two 1 University of Oradea, Faculty of History, Geography and International Relations. 2 Assistant académique au Collège d'Europe - Département d'Etudes Générales - à Bruges. 3 University of Debrecen/ Paris Sorbonne University (Paris IV). 4 “Leadership is as old as mankind. It is universal, and inescapable”. Jean Blondel, Political Leadership. Toward a General Analysis, (London, Beverly Hills, Newburry Park, New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1987), 1. 6 important issues of the contemporary world: political leadership and the European frontiers. The usual three sections of the journal were decided based on the necessity to achieve a more complex diachronic approach of the numerous and different associations between political leaders and the modifications of some European frontiers after the end of the Second World War until the present day. The period covered by the proposed topic was considered necessary to take on, even with the risk of assembling only some pieces of the entire puzzle. Howewer, the proposed chronology tried to capture the main two historical periods, the Cold War and the post Cold War period, together with a process which transcended the both, keeping parallel or intersecting the events, i.e. the process of the European construction. The possibilities for a journal to achieve a holistic picture of a given period of time are quite limited, because it depends on the matter of interest, on the imagination, or on the inspiration of its contributors. We are aware that not all readers and not all specialists will find answers to individual questions among the articles of this review; nevertheless, some articles that deal with very narrow topics can provide a basis to create a new perspective on an extended era. Hence, we considered an interdependent approach between both international (Cold War, after Cold War period) and regional directions (Cold War, after Cold War and European construction process, too), taking into account the standpoint regarding the influence of political leaders on the borders changes that can be a feasible perspective even for a journal. The main work in this case is to connect a quite difficult to define element, the political leadership, considered generally as a “phenomenon of power”, with a very “material” event, the modification of a border. This act implies both an anthropological approach and an international relations viewpoint (and these possibilities are not limitative). For this reason, detailed presentations of some fragments of a long and complicated history could be a usefull starting point for a synthesis or an extended next research. A simple overview of the three sections shows us the fact that Europe, during the same period, and within its different regions, was aware of certain moments when the borders were modified and when some political leaders have been or could have been considered as being the key factors of these changes. Taking into account the different changes of the borders for the period under consideration, these could be regarded both as positive (if we think of the European unification process and the dissolution of EU internal borders) and negative (all the cases when modifications were the result of an aggressive act). The period of the Cold War is very particular because either of the two ways to change the borders was possible, although not reflecting the same political actors. One the one hand, the beginning of the Cold War is linked by a clear delimitation between the two blocks, both ideologically and physically. On the other hand, during the Cold War, the Central-Eastern Europe experienced one of the darkest period of its history. Howewer, for the different Central-Eastern European states and for the different stages of this period there are particular characteristics that render difficult the generalisation of the role of political leadership at the national, regional, European and international level. The level of obedience to political power in Moscow was different for the several Central-Eastern European countries, and we dare state that either borders or political leadership had any signification when “the big Eastern neighbour”, Soviet Union, has particular interest beyond its external frontiers. Except for Gorbatchev, who adopted a different political leadership style, any Soviet political leader, even the moderate Khrushchev (note the 1956 events in Hungary did not hesitate to break any border and sovereignty if the Soviet interests were considered as being affected (and the Praga 1968 events will be extremely significant, too). What is specific for this period is that the two blocks tried to diminish the role of the internal borders, and to fortify their external border, both from ideological and economic points of view (the political side was instrinsicly included). The difference consists in the used instruments: the force for the communist block, and the free will of the member states for the communitarian space. In the same time, the intrinsic causal links between decision-makers and the border changes, either positive or negative, are more obvious in the period of the Cold War than after. During the Cold War, the basis of the leaders‟ political power were easy to grasp, but the instruments used by decision-makers and the results of their decisions were both easy and, at the same time, difficult to forecast, to keep under survey, or to analyse. Therefore, it is more interesting how, and to what extent the two processes, one peacefull from top to bottom, the namely the European construction, 7 and one completely opposite, namely the Cold War, determined certain modifications on something which in reality is very difficult to change, the borders. The period after the fall of the communism has been quite eventful. Concerning the borders, this period will begin with a peaceful transformation of the internal German border (a “sad border”, according to Michel Foucher), a result of the will of the most important political leaders of the moment. Nevertheless, sometimes the events will demonstrate that changes are not always peaceful. So, without much ado after the end of the Cold War the Europeans will experience both the conflicts and the peacefull cooperation, both the war started to set out new frontiers (as in the case of the former Yougoslavia) and the cross-border cooperation (perhaps a new approach of the leadership?), sometimes between former opponents. This new reality is very closely confirmed by the third section of this volume, where the authors give us a picture of a special part of Europe, that of the East, where the events take a certain direction given a certain determinism and due to political leadership of a certain period, too. Hence, particularly given to the ethnic and economic ultranationalist approaches of some former Yougoslavia political leaders, the Balkan region will experience a long and bloody conflict, the conflict that is very easily connected to the type of the political leadership exercised at a time. The result was that after the reunification of Germany at the end of the Cold War, Europe knew once again the negative disintegration of borders, triggered by tension and conflict that proved difficult to manage. It is more than obvious that the problem of political leadership becomes of special concern to all the situations. Hence, despite the split of Germany after the Second World War, European unification was an extremely positive process of disintegration of the national borders. European common space, where the freedom of movement of persons, capitals, services or goods is a given today, this would not have been done if some political leaders had not agreed on starting the process of the European unity, and this could be considered as the most positive change of the borders in the history of civilization. Specifically for the European integration process, even for the process of the disintegration of the so-called internal borders, is the openness of the process, the convergence of the member states wills, a convergence based on open negotiation and reciprocal compromises, following common and general useful objectives. The political leaders, indispensable in this process, were not the single decision-makers. More that, sometimes they were the necessary tools for implementation of some ideas launched in the public sphere (it is well-know the influence of Jean Monnet on Robert Schuman or the French, German and Luxembourg ministers on the conception of the actual Schengen space). Given the European integration process, an original experiment that has never existed in another part of the world (with the exception, maybe, of the federalisation of America, but with taking into account the specific historical period and conditions), Europe seems to be less rigid concerning the issue of the borders, at least from the perspective of the economic borders‟ openness. Europe, world, different peoples (even the residents of the former authoritarian states), all seem to be more and more in motion and this situation is largely accepted as being the normality. A situation that was initially considered only a political phenomenon tends to gain, today, an important cultural character. Physychally the European internal borders have largely disappeared, but it is very important to work on the cultural barriers and the mental borders. Two of the articles presented in the third section of the magazine and one of the book reviews offer to the reader some necessary exemples concerning the adaptation of some former communist states, where frontiers have had for a long time the role of the barriers, to the new European dynamics and opportunities. Capturing some moments of this recent European history was the aim of this issue of the EUROLIMES journal, and we thanks to all the participants who contributed to the success of this scientific result. REFERENCES Blondel, Jean (1987), Political Leadership. Toward a General Analysis. London, Beverly Hills, Newburry Park, New Delhi: Sage Publications. Foucher, Michel (1991), Fronts et frontières. Un tour du monde géopolitique. Paris: Fayard. 8 Wren, Thomas, Hicks, Douglas A. And Price, Terry L. (Eds.) (2004), Traditional Classics on Leadership. Cheltenham, Northampton: Elgar Reference Collection. I. Political Leadership and the Borders of Europe during the Cold War Florin ABRAHAM (Bucharest) ◄► Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej and Romania‟s Eastern Neighbourhood Valentina GÎDEA (Cluj-Napoca), Lucian BOGDAN (Cluj-Napoca) ◄► From Consensus to Mutual Distrust and Back. Shifts of the Boundaries of Free Europe in the Twentieth Century Anca OLTEAN (Oradea) ◄► The Jews of Romania and their Immigration to Israel.1948-1953 Ljiljana MANIC (Belgrade), Nada TORLAK (Belgrade), Natasa SIMEUNOVIC BAJIC (Belgrade) ◄► Tito, Yugoslavia, „Third Way”: Understanding of the Physical and Symbolic Borders