Lattice Engineering : Technology and Applications

404 Pages·2012·19.685 MB·404 p.\404

by  Shumin Wang

“This is a very good book for graduate and postgraduate students and any
scientist who wishes to gain a view of what is possible with semiconductor edited by Shumin Wang
heterostructures. It provides a useful reference for anyone who needs to be
at the forefront of the work in the topics covered. The contributors are well
known in their fields. Readers with a broad interest in epitaxial layers and W
devices should find much to be engaged by and informed about.” a
n
Prof. Mohamed Henini g
University of Nottingham, UK
“This book includes a timely collection of subjects providing a
comprehensive review of some of the most attractive techniques that have
been developed to enable the integration of semiconductor crystals with
different lattices. The hands-on technological review is supported by a
good level of theoretical basis that governs lattice engineering techniques,
L
such as dislocation formation and strain relaxation. The text will be useful
for postgraduate students and also for experienced researchers as a high- A
quality source of references.”
T
Prof. Mircea Guina
Tampere University of Technology, Finland T
I
Semiconductor heterostructures have revolutionized modern information and C
communication technology and find wide uses in solar energy, environment,
E
medicine, and surveillance. One of the biggest challenges is that the lattice
constant of heterostructures must be close to that of substrates to ensure high TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS
E
crystal quality, which greatly limits the flexibility of combining different materials
LATTICE
for band engineering. Extensive research has been carried out to seek for solutions N
of growing heterostructures on cheap and environment-friendly substrates and
monolithically integrating different devices on the same wafers. G
I
This book provides comprehensive reviews of various technologies used over ENGINEERING
N
the past several decades to harness lattice mismatch in heterostructures and
their applications in electronic and optoelectronic devices. It covers a variety E
of innovative methods to eliminate threading dislocations in many important
semiconductor materials such as SiGe and III–Vs and nanowires, epitaxial methods E
such as molecular beam epitaxy and metal organic vapor phase epitaxy, and devices
R
such as transistors and lasers.
I
N
Shumin Wang is professor at the Photonics Laboratory,
Department of Microtechnology and Nanoscience, Chalmers
G
University of Technology, Sweden. He received his BSc and
MSc from the Department of Physics, Fudan University,
China, in 1985 and 1988, respectively, and his PhD from the
Department of Physics, Gothenburg University, Sweden, in
1994. Prof. Wang has been working at Chalmers University of
Technology since 1994.
V235
ISBN-13 978-981-4316-29-3

October22,2012 13:22 PSPBook-9inx6in 00-Shumin-Wang–prelims
Publishedby
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LatticeEngineering:TechnologyandApplications
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ISBN978-981-4316-29-3(Hardcover)
ISBN978-981-4364-25-6(eBook)
PrintedintheUSA
October22,2012 13:22 PSPBook-9inx6in 00-Shumin-Wang–prelims
Contents
Preface xi
1 InterfacialMisfitDislocationArrays 1
DianaL.HuffakerandKalyanNunna
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 LatticeMismatchandDislocations 5
1.2.1 TetragonalDistortion 5
1.2.2 90◦Dislocations 7
1.3 InterfacialMisfitDislocationArrays 9
1.3.1 GaSb/GaAsCompressiveIMFArray 11
1.3.1.1 GrowthofGaSb/GaAsIMF 11
1.3.1.2 Structuralcharacterizationof
GaSb/GaAsIMFbyTEM 12
1.3.1.3 2DnetworkofIMFarrays 16
1.3.1.4 Plan-viewTEM-Moire´ fringeanalysis 17
1.3.2 GaAs/GaSbTensileIMFArray 20
1.3.3 GaSbIMFQuantumDots 21
1.3.4 AlSb/SiMismatchEpitaxy 24
1.3.4.1 GrowthofAlSb/SiIMF 26
1.3.4.2 StructuralanalysisofAlSb/SiIMF 27
1.4 StrainDistribution-AtomisticModeling 32
1.5 DefectAnalysisofBulkIMF:GaSb/GaAs 37
1.5.1 EtchPitDensity 38
1.5.2 Plan-ViewTEM 40
1.5.3 X-rayDiffraction 42
1.6 IMF-BasedDevices 44
1.6.1 Near-IREdge-Emitters 44
1.6.2 SurfaceEmittersatNear-IRWavelengths 45
1.6.3 Detectors 47
1.6.4 SolarCells 47
October22,2012 13:22 PSPBook-9inx6in 00-Shumin-Wang–prelims
vi Contents
1.7 ElectricalPerformanceofIMF 48
1.7.1 PotentialBarrierattheGaSb/GaSbIMF 49
1.7.2 InterfacialStates 50
1.7.3 CompensationoftheIMF 51
1.8 SummaryofIMF-ArrayTechnique 53
2 CompliantSubstrates 63
ShuminWang
2.1 Introduction 63
2.2 TheoreticalUnderstandingofCompliantSubstrates 65
2.3 PreparationofCompliantSubstrates 70
2.3.1 Free-StandingThinFilms 70
2.3.2 AmorphousOxideBuffer 72
2.3.3 ViscousInterlayer 82
2.3.4 StructureModificationofSubstrateTemplates 86
2.3.5 TwistBonding 87
2.4 FutureOutlook 91
3 PatternedSubstrateEpitaxy 99
HuanZhaoandShuminWang
3.1 Introduction 99
3.2 StrainRelaxationinIdeal2DLatticeMismatched
Films 102
3.3 DislocationReductionbyReducedAreaEpitaxy 109
3.4 TechnicalImplementationofPatternedSubstrate
Epitaxy 111
3.4.1 EpitaxialLateralOvergrowthand
Micro-ChannelEpitaxy 111
3.4.2 ReducedAreaGrowthonEtchedMesas 117
3.4.3 EpitaxialNeckingandAspectRatioTrapping 122
3.5 FutureOutlook 124
4 Low-TemperatureDirectWaferBonding 135
AnkeSanz-Velasco,CristinaRusu,IsabelleFerain,
CindyColinge,andMarkGoorsky
4.1 Introduction 136
4.2 CharacterisationMethodsforWaferBonding 138
4.2.1 Non-DestructiveMethods 138
October22,2012 13:22 PSPBook-9inx6in 00-Shumin-Wang–prelims
Contents vii
4.2.1.1 FouriertransformIRspectroscopy 139
4.2.1.2 Scanningacousticmicroscopy 139
4.2.1.3 X-raydiffraction 140
4.2.1.4 Ramanspectroscopy 140
4.2.1.5 Surfaceanalysis 140
4.2.2 DestructiveMethods 141
4.2.2.1 Transmissionelectronmicroscopy 141
4.2.2.2 Bondstrengthmeasurement 141
4.2.2.3 Electricalcharacterisation 142
4.3 AnodicBonding 143
4.4 SiliconDirectBonding 145
4.5 Plasma-AssistedWaferBonding 147
4.5.1 Low-PressurePlasmaProcesses 149
4.5.2 AmbientPressurePlasmaProcesses 152
4.5.3 OxygenPlasma-AssistedBondingMechanism 153
4.6 Low-TemperatureFabricationof
Germanium-on-InsulatorUsingRemotePlasma
ActivationandHydrogenExfoliation 159
4.6.1 GermaniumSurfaceActivationfor
Low-TemperatureBonding 160
4.6.2 Low-TemperatureExfoliationofGermanium
Layers 166
4.6.3 DefectNucleationandOswaldRipening
Mechanism 169
4.6.4 Low-TemperatureFormationof
Ge-on-Insulator 174
4.7 Surface-ActivatedBonding 175
4.8 Summary 176
5 HeterostructuresandStrainRelaxationin
SemiconductorNanowires 189
FrankGlas
5.1 NanowiresandHeterostructures 190
5.1.1 NanowireGrowthModes 190
5.1.2 HeterostructuresinNanowires 191
5.2 FabricatingHeterostructuresinNanowires 193
5.2.1 AxialHeterostructures 193
5.2.2 RadialHeterostructures 195
October22,2012 13:22 PSPBook-9inx6in 00-Shumin-Wang–prelims
viii Contents
5.3 StrainRelaxationinHeterostructures 196
5.3.1 ModesofStrainRelaxation 196
5.3.2 PlayingonDimensionality:QuantumDots,
QuantumWiresandNanowires 198
5.4 AxialHeterostructuresinNanowires 199
5.4.1 ElasticRelaxation 199
5.4.2 CalculationoftheElasticRelaxationinAxial
Heterostructures 200
5.4.2.1 Methods 200
5.4.2.2 Results 202
5.4.3 CriticalDimensions 204
5.4.3.1 The2Dcase 204
5.4.3.2 Radius-dependentcriticalthickness
foranaxialheterostructure 206
5.4.3.3 Criticalradiusforanaxial
heterostructure 209
5.5 NanowiresonaMisfittingSubstrate 210
5.6 RadialHeterostructures 212
5.6.1 CoherentElasticRelaxationinRadial
Heterostructures 212
5.6.2 CriticalDimensionsforNanowireswithRadial
Heterostructures 213
5.7 UsingStraintoEngineerthePhysicalPropertiesof
HeterostructresinNanowires 215
5.8 SummaryandConclusions 216
6 MetamorphicHEMTTechnologyExemplifiedby
InAlAs/InGaAs/GaAsHEMTs 229
WilliamE.HokeandColinS.Whelan
6.1 Introduction 230
6.2 MHEMTOpportunities 233
6.3 MHEMTMaterialResults 234
6.4 MHEMTDeviceResultsandReliability 242
6.5 Summary 252
7 MetamorphicHeterojunctionBipolarTransistors 259
HongWang
7.1 Introduction 260
7.2 MHBTLayerStructures 261
October22,2012 13:22 PSPBook-9inx6in 00-Shumin-Wang–prelims
Contents ix
7.3 FabricationofMHBTsandDeviceCharacteristics 264
7.4 IssuesofMHBTs 268
7.4.1 ThermalCharacteristicsofMHBTs 268
7.4.2 StabilityandReliabilityofMHBTs 276
7.5 MHBTPerformance 278
8 MetamorphicQuantumWellLasers 283
YuxinSong,ShuminWang,XiangjunShang,
andZhichuanNiu
8.1 Introduction 283
8.2 DesignofMetamorphicBufferLayers 284
8.2.1 Bulk-Like,Step-Graded,andAlloy-Graded
MetamorphicBufferLayers 284
8.2.2 “Dislocation-Free”RegionandResidualStrain 286
8.2.3 Step-LikeStrainRelaxation 288
8.3 DopinginAlloy-GradedBufferLayers 290
8.3.1 DopingEffectsonSurfaceMorphologyand
StructuralProperty 290
8.3.2 EffectsofAlloyGradingProfiles 292
8.3.3 EffectsofGradingSlopesandFinalIn
Compositions 296
8.3.4 DesignofAlloy-GradedBuffersfor
OptoelectronicDevices 300
8.4 MetamorphicQuantumWellLasers 300
8.4.1 MetamorphicTelecomLasers 301
8.4.2 Mid-InfraredMetamorphicQuantumWell
Lasers 306
9 High-PerformanceMetamorphicIn(Ga)As/GaAs
QuantumDotLasersonGaAsandSi 319
ZetianMi,JunYang,andPallabBhattacharya
9.1 Introduction 320
9.2 EpitaxialGrowthofHigh-QualityMetamorphic
In(Ga)AsBufferLayersonGaAsandSiSubstrates 321
9.2.1 InGaAsMetamorphicBufferLayersonGaAs 322
9.2.2 Self-OrganizedQuantumDotDislocation
Filters 324
9.2.2.1 Theoreticalmodel 325
9.2.2.2 Experimentalcharacterization 327