Latino History and Culture: An Encyclopedia, Vol. 1 PDF
Preview Latino History and Culture: An Encyclopedia, Vol. 1
L AT INO HISTORY AND CULTURE A N E N C Y C L O P E D I A David J. Leonard and Carmen R. Lugo-Lugo, editors SHARPE REFERENCE Sharpe Reference is an imprint of M.E. Sharpe, Inc. M.E. Sharpe, Inc. 80 Business Park Drive Armonk, NY 10504 © 2013 by M.E. Sharpe, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright holders. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Latino history and culture: an encyclopedia / David J. Leonard and Carmen R. Lugo- Lugo, editors. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7656-8083-9 (hardcover: alk. paper) 1. Hispanic Americans—Encyclopedias. I. Leonard, David J. II. Lugo-Lugo, Carmen R. E184.S75L3622 2009 305.868'07303—dc22 2008047796 Cover photos by Getty and the following (from top left corner): Doug Collier/AFP; Alex Wong; Bob Parent/Hulton Archive; Tim Boyle; Kevin Mazur/WireImage. Printed and bound in the United States of America The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z 39.48.1984. (c) 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Publisher: Myron E. Sharpe Vice President and Director of New Product Development: Donna Sanzone Vice President and Production Director: Carmen Chetti Executive Development Editor: Jeff Hacker Project Manager: Laura Brengelman Program Coordinator: Cathleen Prisco Assistant Editor: Alison Morretta Text Design: Carmen Chetti and Jesse Sanchez Cover Design: Jesse Sanchez LATINO HISTORY AND CULTURE Table of Contents A-Z Entries Acculturation and Assimilation Acosta, Oscar (1935–?) Acuña, Rodolfo (1932–) Afro-Latinos Afro-Mexicans AIDS/HIV Alamo, Battle of the Albizu Campos, Pedro (1891–1965) Algarín, Miguel (1941–) Alvarez, Julia (1950–) American GI Forum Anaya, Rudolfo Alfonso (1937–) Anzaldúa, Gloria (1942–2004) Arenas, Reinaldo (1943–1990) Argentines ASPIRA Aztlán Baca, Judith F. (1946–) Balseros Baseball Basketball Bay of Pigs Invasion Bear Flag Revolt Bilingualism Blair House Attack Blowouts Bolivians Boricua Boxing Bracero Program Brazilians Brothers to the Rescue Brown Berets Carnalismo Castellanos, Rosario (1925–1974) Castillo, Ana (1953–) Castro, Fidel (1926–) Central American Resource Center Chávez, César (1927–1993) Chávez Ravine Chicago Chicanisma Chicanismo Chicano/a Chicano Art Chicano Movement Chicano Studies Chileans Cholos Cinco de Mayo Circular Migration Cisneros, Henry (1947–) Cisneros, Sandra (1954–) Clemente, Roberto (1934–1972) Cofer, Judith Ortiz (1952–) Colombians Communist Party Community Service Organization Congressional Hispanic Caucus Conquest of the Americas Consumerism Corona, Bert (1918–2001) Corridos Costa Ricans Coyotes Cruz, Celia (1925–2003) Crystal City, Texas Cuban Adjustment Acts (1966, 1996) Cuban American National Foundation Cuban Refugee Center Cuban Refugee Program Cubans Culture Clash De La Hoya, Oscar (1973–) Del Rio Independent School District v. Salvatierra (1930) Día de la Raza Día de los Muertos Dominican Day Parade Dominicans East L.A. Thirteen East Los Angeles Ecuadorians Education Escalante, Jaime (1930–2010) Estefan, Gloria (1957–) Family and Community Farah Strike Farmingville, New York Feminism Ferrer, José (1912–1992) Film Flores Magón, Ricardo (1874–1922) Foods and Beverages Foraker Act (1900) Foreign Miners’ Tax (1850) Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional (FALN) Galarza, Ernesto (1905–1984) Gamio, Manuel (1883–1960) Gangs Garcia, Cristina (1958–) García, Héctor P. (1914–1996) Gay and Lesbian Organizations Gonzales, Rodolfo “Corky” (1928–2005) González, Elián (1993–) Gonzalez, Henry Barbosa (1916–2000) Gonzalez, Jose-Luis (1940–) Graffiti Grape Strikes and Boycotts “Greaser Act” (1855) Gringo Grito, El Guagua Aérea Guatemalans Guevara, Ernesto “Che” (1928–1967) Gutiérrez, José Angel (1944–) Health and Health Care Hijuelos, Oscar (1951–) Hip-Hop Hispanic Heritage Month History: 1492–1900 History: 1900–1965 History: 1965–Present Hondurans Housing and Living Conditions Huerta, Dolores (1930–) Identity and Labels Illegal Immigration Immigration Act of 1924 Immigration Act of 1990 Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 Immigration Enforcement Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 Indigenismo Internal Colony Jones Act (1917) Justice for Janitors Kahlo, Frida (1907–1954) Kennedy, Robert F. (1925–1968) King, Martin Luther, Jr. (1929–1968) La Raza La Raza Unida Party Latinidad/Latinaje Latinization Latino/a Latino Studies League of United Latin American Citizens Lemon Grove Incident Lesbianas Unidas Levins Morales, Aurora (1954–) LLEGÓ Lopez, Jennifer (1970–) Los Angeles Lowriders Macheteros, Los Machismo Malinche, La (ca. 1500–ca. 1529) Manifest Destiny Marianismo Mariel Boatlift Marielitos McCarran-Walter Act (1952) Medrano v. Allee (1972) Mendez v. Westminster School District (1946) Mestizo/a Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund Mexican-American Movement Mexican American Political Association Mexican American Student Association Mexican American Women’s National Association Mexican American Youth Organization Mexican-American War Mexicans Miami Migrant Workers Military, Latinos in the Miscegenation Moraga, Cherríe (1952–) Morales, Iris (?–) Moreno, Rita (1931–) Mothers of East L.A. Movimiento Estudiantíl Chicano de Aztlán Mujeres Activas en Letras y Cambio Social Mulataje Mulatto/a Muñoz Marín, Luis (1898–1980) Muñoz Rivera, Luis (1859–1916) Mural Art Murrieta, Joaquín (ca. 1829–1853) Museo del Barrio, El Music Narváez, Pánfilo (ca. 1470–1528) National Agricultural Workers Union National Association of Cuban-American Women National Chicano Moratorium National Conference of Puerto Rican Women National Congress for Puerto Rican Rights National Council of Hispanic Women National Council of La Raza National Farm Labor Union National Puerto Rican Coalition Nationalism New York Nicaraguans Norte, El (1983) North American Free Trade Agreement Novello, Antonia (1944–) Nuyorican Nuyorican Poets Café Operation Bootstrap Operation Wetback Opinión, La Pachuco Padilla, José (1970–) Panamanians Paraguayans Peña, Albert A., Jr. (1917–2006) Pérez, Emma (1954–) Performance Art, Solo Peruvians Plan de Santa Barbara, El Plan Espiritual de Aztlán, El Platt Amendment (1901) Politics Popular Culture Poverty Poverty, Culture of Prinze, Freddie (1954–1977) Prison Gangs Prison Industrial Complex Proposition 187 (1994) Proposition 209 (1996) Proposition 227 (1998) Puente, Tito (1923–2000) Puerto Rican Day Parade Puerto Rican Literature Puerto Rican Revolutionary Workers Organization Puerto Rican Studies Puerto Ricans Quinceañera Race Religion Repatriation Resident Commissioner, Puerto Rico Rodriguez, Alex (1975–) Rodríguez, Luis J. (1954–) Rodriguez, Richard (1944–) Rodríguez de Tió, Lola (1843–1924) Roybal, Edward R. (1916–2005) Ruiz de Burton, María Amparo (1832–1895) Salazar, Rubén (1928–1970) Salvadorans Samora, Julian (1920–1996) Santiago, Esmeralda (1948–) Selena (1971–1995) Serra, Junípero (1713–1784) Sleepy Lagoon Case Soccer Sosa, Sammy (1968–) Sotomayor, Sonia (1954–) Southwest Voter Registration Education Project Spanglish Spanish Language Spanish-American War Spirituality Sterilization Taos Rebellion Teatro Campesino, El Tejanos Telemundo Television Telles, Raymond (1915–) Tenayuca, Emma (1916–1999) Tex-Mex Third World Liberation Front Thomás, Piri (1928–2011) Tijerina, Reies López (1926–) Tracking Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) Trevino, Lee (1939–) Unions, Industrial and Trade United Farm Workers of America Univision Uruguayans Valdez, Luis (1940–) Valenzuela, Fernando (1960–) Venezuelans Vieques, Puerto Rico Vietnam War Villaraigosa, Antonio (1953–) Viva Kennedy Clubs West Side Story Women Wrestling, Professional Yo Soy Joaquín Young Lords Zapatistas Zoot Suit Riots Master Bibliography Books and Articles Web Sites Acculturation and Assimilation Social scientists define assimilation or acculturation as the process by which immigrants—including Europeans, Latin Americans, Asians, and other minority groups—conform to rules, ideologies, and common practices of American society and culture. Public schools, churches, the government, and other social institutions are involved in acquainting new people with its values and norms and in motivating them to envision being part of the host society. Since its origin, the United States has been challenged to integrate newcomers from different parts of the world, achieving different levels of success in acquainting these new people with its values and norms and in motivating them to envision being part of American society. The experiences of immigrants in the United States, particularly Latinos/as, are diverse because of (1) differences in the way they have been assimilated into mainstream American culture, (2) differing degrees of assimilation, and (3) diverse countries of origin. Thus, not all Latino immigrants assimilate in the same way or to the same degree. Restrictive immigration policies that targeted Latino immigrants at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries seemed to ensure that they would have a difficult time gaining the acceptance of Americans and assimilating into U.S. culture. Furthermore, economic differences among Latino immigrants, as well as the immigrants’ political significance to the United States, have played a part in their acceptance and integration. This is exemplified by the reception of Cubans from 1959 to the 1980s compared to the reception of Nicaraguans in the 1990s. Cubans received monetary as well as political and social support to settle in the United States, because they were seen as victims of a Communist country with which the United States had contentious relations. By contrast, Nicaraguans escaping their country’s Communist government in 1990 requested political asylum but did not receive it. The American political culture in the latter year—after the demise of the Soviet Union—no longer
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