Late Prehistoric High Plains Foragers

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University of Nebraska - Lincoln
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Anthropology Faculty Publications Anthropology, Department of
1999
Late Prehistoric High Plains Foragers: Starving
Nomads, Affluent Foragers?
LuAnn Wandsnider
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, [email protected]
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Great Plains Studies, Center for
Great Plains Research: A Journal of Natural
and Social Sciences
University of Nebraska - Lincoln Year 
Late Prehistoric High Plains Foragers:
Starving Nomads, Affluent Foragers?
LuAnn Wandsnider
University of Nebraska - Lincoln, [email protected]
ThispaperispostedatDigitalCommons@UniversityofNebraska-Lincoln.
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsresearch/418
Great Plains Research 9 (Spring 1999): 9-39
© Copyrightby the Centerfor Great Plains Studies
FEATURE ARTICLE
LATE PREHISTORIC HIGH PLAINS FORAGERS:
STARVING NOMADS,AFFLUENT FORAGERS?
LuAnn Wandsnider
DepartmentofAnthropology
University ofNebraska
225BesseyHall
Lincoln, NE 68588-0368
ABSTRACT-Past human groups of the High Plains have been
variouslycharacterizedasstarvingnomadsandaffluentforagers. Infact,
thesetermsdonotcapturethemulti-facetednatureofthehumanforaging
experienceonthe High Plains. Relying onhumanecologyand archaeo
logicalinterpretations,thispaperexaminesthecopingstrategiesusedby
Late Prehistoric foragers in the high variance environment ofthe High
Plains,whichwasrelativelylessvariableduringtheearlypartoftheLate
Prehistoric time period and more variable in the laterpart.
Introduction
The western Plains-the "American Desert"-were once thought un
inhabitable by foot nomads, who, without the horse of the historically
documented western Plains equestrian groups, would have been disadvan
taged in their pursuit ofthe life-sustaining bison (Wedel 1961, 1983). The
High Plains archeological record, however, has indicated otherwise; and,
once human occupation was accepted, the occupants were described as
"chronicallystarving,gatheringnomads"(Mulloy 1954:59).Recently,how
ever, Eighmy (1994) suggested this area was occupied from 500 to 1050
A.D. by groups operating out ofwell established encampments in thefoot
hills of the Front Range. A dearth of remains in the following 450 years
suggested that the Central High Plains was used as a hunting territory by
groups for whom this area was peripheral. In contrast, however, Roper
(1990)foundevidenceinlocallyproducedceramicsforlikelymobilegroups
in residence here even during the later time period. In addition, Kornfeld
(1994) has offered a radical interpretation of past hunter-gatherers in the
areajustwestoftheBlackHills; hearguestheywerenotdependentonbison
but"affluentforagers," meaningforagers withleisuretime onparwith that
seenin contemporaryWestern society.
9
10 Great Plains Research Vol. 9 No.1, 1999
The shifting description of the human past of the High Plains from
nonexistent to ranging from starving nomads to residential foragers to
affluent bison-free foragers is a remarkable trajectory; this evolution re
flects ourgrowing understanding ofhuman foraging in a challenging envi
ronmentbasedonamorecompleteunderstandingofarchaeologicaldeposits
here. In what follows, I take a closer look at human foragers on the High
Plains,focusing ontheLatePrehistorictimeperiodfrom 1to 1100A.D.The
HighPlains,withitsinteriorcontinentiallocationjusteastofamajormoun
tain range, offers a larder with high temporal and spatial variances inflora
and fauna. Even in the best oftimes, and especially in the worst oftimes,
these variances are magnified. Human behavioral ecology allows us to an
ticipate aspects ofhuman foraging under such circumstances.
High Plains paleoenvironmental records indicate that conditions dur
ing theearlyLatePrehistoric (1-900A.D.) were wetterorcoolerthan those
during the succeedingLittle Climatic Optimum(900-1300A.D.). Thus, my
strategy is to contrast evidence on High Plains foraging during these two
periods. After reviewing High Plains paleoenvironment and prehistory, I
examinehumanforagingbehaviorinhighvarianceenvironments,highlight
ing the evidence we have from the High Plains. Next, I focus on pit hearth
processing as acomponentofforaging documentedfor the Late Prehistoric
sequence of the White River Badlands of Nebraska and South Dakota,
underscoring the role this tactic playedinforaging. Finally, Iclosewith my
interpretation ofthe implications ofthesefindings for ourunderstanding of
High Plains foragers.
High Plains Paleoclimate andPrehistory
TheHighPlains,forthepurposeofthispaper,isdefinedasconstrained
to the upper reaches of the Upper Republican River and North and South
PlatteRiversaswellasthewesternreachesoftheNiobraraandWhiteRivers
(Fig. 1). Populations inhabiting and using the High Plains were also likely
familiarwiththeBlackHillsofSouthDakota,theSandHillsofwesternand
centralNebraska, portionsoftheFrontRange, andtheintermountainbasins
ofWyoming.
TheprehistoricHighPlainsregionalclimatewasonewithhigh spatial
and temporal variance. Modern and historic climatic records, along with
dendroclimatic data, indicate temporal variation in precipitation at both
annual and decadal scales (Mock 1991). Mock (1991) also found spatial
variation, with little correlation to precipitation values, between historic
Late Prehistoric High Plains Foragers 11
SOUTHDAKOTA
Vore
Northwest
s""et",,,,", Plains
Rive.....
AgateFossil
BedsNM _Grasslands
DutchCreek Central NEBRASKA
High White River Badlands
Plains
I A'k" Black Hills
, -----~----~~-.,.p.;.,er
o km 200
====~
COLORADO =
o
miles 200
Figure 1.High Plains province.
recordingstations 100to 150kmapart. Fromthisheconcludedthatdrought,
when it occurred, was local rather than regional in scale. That these vari
ancesarelong-standingisaffirmedbythedroughtandfiretolerantplantand
animal communities found here (Bock et a1.l991; Fredlund and Tiezsen
1994).
WhilethelateHolocenepaleoclimatewasrelativelyuniform,thereare
several lines of evidence suggesting cooler, moister conditions prevailed
from 100-900 A.D., followed by dramatically drier conditions from 900
1100A.D. First, alluvial geomorphology (Fig. 2a) suggests a stable land
scape with soil formation during the time period from about 2000 to 1000
B.P. and sediment aggradation and incision in the succeeding several hun
dredyears (May 1992;Martin 1992a,b;Mandel 1992). Second, alluvialfan
deposits in the southern Black Hills, as well as terrace deposits along the
White River, suggest stable vegetated surfaces until about 900 B.P., with
erosion instability following (Fig. 2b). Third, stable carbon isotope values
from southernBlackHills soil samples indicate ashiftingrassland compo
sition about 1100 B.P., from one with relatively more C (cool growing
3
12 Great Plains Research Vol. 9 No.1, 1999
Hackbeny South Republi Pawnee
Lake, Loup, canRiver, River
NCNE CNE SCNE NKS
(Sears1961) (May1992) (Martin1992a) (Mandel1992)
500
rapid
aggra incision
Po. dation
~
00
~ 1000
>(] )
~
""d
~
~ 1500
U
2000 L __~__JJiliTImIillill
Figure 2a. High Plains Paleoclimatic Reconstructions: CentralPlains
season) grasses to one with more C and less C grasses (Fredlund 1996).
4 3
Pollendataareconsistentwiththispicture, withpinepollendominatingthe
HackberryLakeassemblagejustpriorto 1100B.P.butgrasspollendominat
ing afterward (Sears 1961). Finally, several glacier advances occurred, be
tween 2200-1600 B.P. and also around 1l00-1000B.P. (Davis 1988).
Taken together, these paleoclimatic data suggest three important
trends. First,generallymoremesicandpossiblycoolerconditionsprevailed
on the High Plains during the first millennium A.D.; and, these conditions
were followed by more xeric conditions late in the first millennium A.D.
Second, the mesic conditions were not homogenous and continuous; in
stead, they were variedandalso interruptedby severalperiods ofrelatively
xeric conditions. Third, while similar trends in paleoclimate were seen on
the High Plains and on adjoining areas, moisture or temperature regimes
werenottightlycoupledbetweenregions. Forexample,ontheCentralHigh
Plains, relatively mesic conditions appear to have begun later (1800 B.P.)
Late Prehistoric High Plains Foragers 13
WhiteRiver,
Terrace SWSD
deposits (Whiteand
Alluvialfandeposits,
OglalaNtlGr Hannus1985)
BlackHills (Fredlund1996)
500
erosion -21 --17
erosion delta13C
~
o:l
arJ:J 1000
Cl)
~
Ir-o<
'"d
$:I
..C-l) 1500
ro
U
2000
Figure lb. High PlainsPaleoclimatic Reconstructions: Eastern High Plains.
and ceasedearlier(1400 B.P.) than similarconditions on the Central Plains
further east (2000-1600, 1100 B.P.).
In sum, long periods of relatively moist, a less variable conditions
prevailedonthe HighPlains 2000-1100B.P., withrelatively more xeric and
likely variable conditions following with the onset of the Little Climatic
Optimum about 1100 BP. Ofcourse, both human and nonhuman foragers,
respond to specific conditions rather than to gross environmental trends.
Fornow, the bestpredictionis thatforagers likelyrelied ondifferent suites
offoraging tactics intheearly(2000-1100B.P.) portion, comparedwiththe
later (1100-900 BP) portion, ofthe Late Prehistoric sequence.
Havingestablishedaframework within whichto examineHigh Plains
foraging, I turn now to briefly review human past on the High Plains as
known archaeologically. Unfortunately, we cannot say with precision ex
actly who the occupants were nor how they were related to contemporary
Native American groups (see Wolf 1994). Nevertheless, how these occu-
14 Great Plains Research Vol. 9 No.1, 1999
TABLE 1
High Plains Cultural Sequence (after Hofman 1996)
Taxa Time Period Subsistence Mobility Technology
Late 2500-1100 B.P.
Prehistoric
Period
Plains A.D. 900 domesticate globular-shaped
Village 1400 oriented ceramics; bison
sub economies scapulahoes in
division appear on eastern High
eastern High Plains contexts
Plains
Plains 500B.C. domesticated structures in bow-and-arrow
Woodland A.D. 900 plants appear the foothills weaponry
sub oftheFront systems, large,
division Range onSW conical-shaped
High Plains ceramics
Archaic 7000 diverse, as shallowpit corner-notched
Period 2500 B.P. indicated by structures from projectile points
the inclusion theNWPlains (atlatl and dart
ofmany plants suggest some weaponry);
and animals degree of roasting pits;
sedentism; tipi ground stone
rings argue for (indicating
regional reliance onfoods
mobility requiring more
processing or
processing for
storage)
Paleoindian >7000 B.P. megafauna 400-200 km distinctiveand
Period (e.g., mammoth) asindicated largelanceolate
and dense by distances projectile points,
herbivore between lithic usually inter
(bison) raw material preted as spear
orientation sources and points, and
find location associated forms
Late Prehistoric High Plains Foragers 15
pants coped with, and perhaps even thrived on, the resource variations on
High Plains is approachable archaeologically. Since the focus ofthis paper
is onforaging in the LatePrehistoricperiod (Table 1), itis useful to briefly
reviewthecurrentunderstandingofthisandtheimmediatelyprecedingtime
periods (Bozell and Winfrey 1994; Eighmy 1994; Adair 1996).
The Late Prehistoric time period is sometimes subdivided into the
PlainsWoodlandperiodandthePlainsVillageperiod.ThePlainsWoodland
periodisrecognizedonthebasisoflarge,conically-shaped,cord-roughened
ceramics, which appeared at this time. Also found are corner-notched pro
jectilepoints (atlatl-and-dartorbow-and-arrow weaponry), relatively more
elaborateburialpractices (seebelow), anddomesticatedplantspecies,both
introduced (e.g., maize) and indigenous (e.g., goosefoot, pigweed). The
degreetowhichagriculturewaspracticedbyPlainsWoodlandperiodpopu
lationsin the HighPlainswas likely limited, given the rarereports ofmaize
and other domesticated plants like goosefoot and pigweed from the High
Plains (Irwin and Irwin 1959; Zier and Kalasz 1991:133-36) in contrast to
the Central Plains (seeAdair 1994, 1996) and theAmerican Southwest.
The PlainsVillage period followed. On the eastern High Plains ofthe
Upper Republican River valley, the Plains Village period is recognized on
the basis of small earthlodges, small- to medium-sized globular ceramics,
and small triangular notched or unnotched arrow projectile points. Exotic
items from mortuary contexts ofthis period, including copper, malachite,
turquoise,andshellfromtheGulfandAtlanticCoastsaswellasfromeastern
North America, are usually interpreted as trade goods (Logan 1996). Also
reported are bison scapula hoes, which are associated with agricultural
economies, especially on the eastern Central Plains. Further to the west,
evidence for earthlodges and agricultural tools is lacking, although locally
produced ceramics have been recovered (Roper 1990;Wood 1990).
Based on the paleoclimatic reconstructions, we expect that the forag
ing strategies used by Plains Woodland occupants in the High Plains were
eitherdifferent, orwereimplementedwithdifferentfrequencies, than those
used by succeeding Plains Village foragers. My goal is to understand the
nature of this foraging, especially during the late Plains Woodland time
period.
Human Foraging in a HighVariance Environment
Studies of foragers in high variance environments, those typified by
frequentandperhapsunpredictabletemporalandspatialchangesinresource
16 Great Plains Research Vol. 9 No.1, 1999
abundance, have focused on five strategies (Halstead and O'Shea 1989;
Redding 1988; Kaplan and Hill 1992:188). These are:
1) mobility with frequent patch abandonment,
2) diet selection,
3) storage,
4) information sharing, and
5) resource sharing.
I review the five strategies and the evidence for their employmentby High
Plainspopulations. Inaddition, Iconsidertwo otheroptions, low-costagri
culture and intensive agriculture, as possible measures adopted by High
Plains populations to deal with resource variation.
Mobility with FrequentPatchAbandonment
Resource patches that are spatially small or which hostfew prey may
be rapidly harvested, and so, patch abandonment should be frequent
(Stephens and Krebs 1986). A world-wide analysis of pedestrian human
foragers with low dependence on fish (Kelly 1983, 1995:111-60) indicated
that, insituations similartothe HighPlains, wetypicallyfindhighlevels of
residentialmobility-15-40moves/year-withanaveragedistancebetween
moves of 20 km; and, such moves are correlated with patch abandonment
and the exhaustion of water supplies. Kornfeld (1994:90-123) compiled
information to calculate total return rate (energy captured minus handling
cost)forvariousHighPlainsresources,rangingfromcattailpollentobeaver
and bison. However, for the High Plains, we currently lack detailed, inde
pendentinformationonpatchsizeandspeciesabundanceofthekindthathas
been compiled for the Interior Northwestern Plateau of North America
(Thoms 1989). Nevertheless, most researchers appear to view the High
Plains as providing many redundant patches with low average resource
abundance,butunpredictably-occurringresourceblooms(e.g.,Wedel 1986;
Gunnerson 1987). In any case, the archaeological record clearly indicates
that 1000-2000yearsago humanforagers here were very mobile, withlittle
indication of substantial domestic structures except in the foothills of the
Rocky Mountains (Eighmy 1994:228-29).
DietSelection
Second, under stressed conditions diet may be broadened to include
lower quality resources that are relatively stable year-to-year (Kaplan and
Hill 1992:188). A mixed strategy, situationally emphasizing both reliable,