Last Sorcerers: Path From Alchemy To The Periodic Table

294 Pages·2003·5.29 MB·English

by  Richard Morris

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Also by Richard Morris
Achilles in the Quantum Universe:The Definitive History of Infinity
Artificial Worlds: Computers, Complexity, and the Riddle of Life
Big Questions: Probing the Promise and Limits of Science
Cosmic Questions: Galactic Halos, Cold Dark Matter and the End of
Time
Dismantling the Universe: The Nature of Scientific Discovery
The Evolutionists: The Struggle for Darwin’s Soul
The Nature of Reality: The Universe After Einstein
The Universe, the Eleventh Dimension, and Everything: What We Know
and How We Know It
Time’s Arrows: Scientific Attitudes Toward Time
Copyright © 2003 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
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Richard Morris
Joseph Henry Press
Washington, D.C.
Copyright © 2003 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Unless otherwise indicated, all materials in this PDF File provided by the National Academies Press (www.nap.edu) for research
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Joseph Henry Press • 500 Fifth Street, NW • Washington, DC 20001
The Joseph Henry Press, an imprint of the National Academies Press,
was created with the goal of making books on science, technology,
and health more widely available to professionals and the public.
Joseph Henry was one of the founders of the National Academy of
Sciences and a leader in early American science.
Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed
in this volume are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect
the views of the National Academy of Sciences or its affiliated institu-
tions.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Morris, Richard, 1939-2003
The last sorcerers : the path from alchemy to the periodic table /
Richard Morris.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-309-08905-0 (hbk.)—ISBN 0-309-50593-3 (PDF)
1. Chemistry—History. I. Title.
QD11.M86 2003
540'.9—dc22
2003014790
Cover: Alchemist’s Laboratory, © David Lees/CORBIS; Dalton’s List
of Atomic Weight and Symbols, © Science Photo Library.
Copyright 2003 by Richard Morris. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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C
ONTENTS
Preface vii
1 The Four Elements 1
2 Prelude to the Birth of Chemistry 26
3 The Sceptical Chymist 45
4 The Discovery of the Elements 68
5 A Nail for the Coffin 90
6 “Only an Instant to Cut Off That Head” 108
7 The Atom 130
8 Problems with Atoms 145
9 The Periodic Law 157
10 Deciphering the Atom 176
Epilogue: The Continuing Search 203
Appendix: A Catalog of the Elements 223
Further Reading 261
Index 265
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P
REFACE
N
owadays we hear a great deal about physicists’ ongoing
effort to understand the nature of the universe’s ultimate
constituents. Numerous books are written about the
physics of elementary particles, about the hypothetical objects known
as superstrings, and about the “dark matter” that constitutes a large
part of the universe’s mass. Millions of words are written about
attempts to probe their mysteries.
However, the quest to understand what the world was made of
did not begin with discoveries in physics but in the West with the
ancient Greeks, who pondered the ultimate constituents of matter
and advanced a number of theories before concluding that there were
four elements: earth, air, fire, and water. Of course the theory was
wrong, but for sheer longevity, it was one of the most successful ever
proposed. It lasted more than 2,000 years.
Not until the sixteenth century did questions about the ultimate
nature of things began to be asked again. Although the four-element
theory continued to be accepted, new attempts were made to better
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viii THE LAST SORCERERS
understand it. The questioning continued until the eighteenth
century, when the natural philosophers (there were no “scientists”
then; that word did not come into general use until the middle of the
nineteenth century) who pondered such things created the science of
chemistry.
Creating a new science was an arduous task, one that continued
over the course of many generations. The four-element theory had
held sway for so long that it required well over a century of experi-
mentation, observation, and theorizing to overturn it. One impedi-
ment was the lack of a modern conception of a chemical element.
And although many chemists believed that matter was made of atoms,
they couldn’t describe the properties of an atom with any confidence.
Some chemists refused to believe that such things even existed. In
their view atoms were nothing more than a useful fiction. It wasn’t
until 1905 that Albert Einstein settled the question, showing that
observations of a phenomenon known as the Brownian movement
provided proof that atoms were real.
During most of the eighteenth century chemists remained igno-
rant of the nature of the substances they worked with. None of the
three most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust—oxygen, silicon,
and aluminum—had yet been discovered. Chemists didn’t know that
air could be broken down into different components, and they
remained ignorant of such gasses as oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen,
all of which play important roles in chemical reactions. Yet they never
ceased searching for the key to the universe—knowledge of what the
world was made of—and important new discoveries were made in
every generation. By the end of the century modern chemistry had
been created.
In the course of this surge of chemical research, new problems
arose almost as soon as the old ones were solved. By the mid-
nineteenth century about 60 chemical elements were known, and it
was puzzling that there were so many. Could the universe really have
60 different fundamental components? And if it did, what were the
relationships between them? Why did some have properties very
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PREFACE ix
much like those of some others? Was it possible to find some order in
the chaotic table of the elements?
The Lives of the Chemists
A number of chemistry histories describe discoveries in great detail. I
have not attempted to duplicate what they do so well. Instead I have
concentrated on the lives of the people who transformed chemistry
into a modern science. I have not shied away from explaining their
most important discoveries, but I have not dwelled on the technical
details.
The lives of these men were often eventful, but eventful in
different ways. For example, there was Robert Boyle, who is widely
considered the founder of the science of chemistry. But Boyle was an
alchemist as well as a chemist, and he spent the greater part of his life
seeking the Philosopher’s Stone, the elusive substance that could sup-
posedly transform base metals into gold. His search for the Stone led
to some misadventures that I describe in detail.
Today Joseph Priestley is known as one of the discoverers of oxy-
gen.* However, in his own day his liberal political views branded him
as a dangerous political radical. Priestley once had to flee when a roy-
alist mob destroyed his house and laboratory, and he later emigrated
to the United States when his friends advised him that he was risking
his life by remaining in England.
Priestley’s contemporary, Henry Cavendish, led an entirely dif-
ferent kind of life. One of the wealthiest men in England, he was a
recluse and made his great discoveries in a laboratory he built in his
home. Cavendish avoided conversing with men as much as he could,
and he fled if he encountered a woman. Once, after running into a
maid on a stairway in his house, he had back stairs built for the maids
so that he would never have to run into them again.
*The Swedish apothecary Carl Wilhelm Scheele also has a strong claim
to this distinction. See page 81.
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x THE LAST SORCERERS
Antoine Lavoisier was a French chemist who had the misfortune
to live in revolutionary times, although he was no diehard loyalist.
On the contrary, while not politically active, he held views that were
very liberal for his day. Lavoisier died on the guillotine. In pre-
revolutionary days, he had been a frequent target of diatribes written
by the radical leader Jean-Paul Marat. Marat, who once had scientific
ambitions, believed that Lavoisier blocked his attempts to gain elec-
tion to the French Academy of Sciences. Marat was assassinated be-
fore Lavoisier was executed, so he played no role in the latter’s arrest
or trial, but it is significant that he had constantly attacked Lavoisier
for his role as a tax farmer. It was for his activities as a tax farmer that
Lavoisier was executed.
Dimitri Mendeleev was a bigamist who married a second time
after paying an orthodox priest, who was later defrocked, to give him
a dispensation. Mendeleev had his long white hair and beard cut only
once a year, giving him a somewhat outlandish appearance. However,
his contemporaries admired him as the greatest Russian chemist.
Though the political situation in Russia caused him problems, he was
luckier—if dying at a certain time can be said to be lucky—than
Lavoisier in that he passed away quietly before the communist
revolution.
Niels Bohr was a physicist, not a chemist. I devote a chapter to his
life because he was the scientist who explained why Mendeleev’s
periodic table had the properties it did. Widely known as a soccer
player in his youth, Bohr became the most influential physicist of the
first half of the twentieth century. His life, too, was touched by
political events. A Jew living in occupied Denmark, Bohr had to flee
the country to avoid arrest by the Nazis. In 1939 Bohr discovered a
theory that explained nuclear fission, and suggested that uranium
235 could be used to make a bomb. Though he played only a minor
role in the American atomic bomb project, Bohr was the first to
ponder the political implications of the bomb.
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