Landscapes and Landforms of Nigeria PDF
Preview Landscapes and Landforms of Nigeria
World Geomorphological Landscapes Adetoye Faniran L. K. Jeje Olutoyin A. Fashae Adeyemi O. Olusola Editors Landscapes and Landforms of Nigeria World Geomorphological Landscapes Series Editor Piotr Migoń, Institute of Geography and Regional Development, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland Geomorphology – ‘the Science of Scenery’ – is a part of Earth Sciences that focuses on the scientific study of landforms, their assemblages, and surface and subsurface processes that moulded them in the past and that change them today. Shapes of landforms and regularities oftheirspatialdistribution,theirorigin,evolution,andagesarethesubjectofgeomorphology. Geomorphologyisalsoascienceofconsiderablepracticalimportancesincemanygeomorphic processes occur so suddenly and unexpectedly, and with such a force, that they pose significant hazards to human populations. Landformsand landscapesvaryenormouslyacross theEarth,fromhighmountainstoendlessplains.Atasmallerscale,Natureoftensurprisesus creatingshapeswhichlookimprobable.Manygeomorphologicallandscapesaresoimmensely beautiful that they received the highest possible recognition – they hold the status of World Heritage properties. Apart from often being immensely scenic, landscapes tell stories which not uncommonly can be traced back in time for millions of years and include unique events. This international book series will be a scientific library of monographs that present and explain physical landscapes across the globe, focusing on both representative and uniquely spectacular examples. Each book contains details on geomorphology of a particular country (i.e. The Geomorphological Landscapes of France, The Geomorphological Landscapes of Italy, The Geomorphological Landscapes of India) or a geographically coherent region. The content is divided into two parts. Part one contains the necessary background about geology and tectonic framework, past and present climate, geographical regions, and long-term geomorphological history. The core of each book is however succinct presentation of key geomorphological localities (landscapes) and it is envisaged that the number of such studies will generally vary from 20 to 30. There is additional scope for discussing issues of geomorphological heritage and suggesting itineraries to visit the most important sites. The series provides a unique reference source not only for geomorphologists, but all Earth scientists, geographers, and conservationists. It complements the existing reference books in geomorphology which focus on specific themes rather than regions or localities and fills a growing gap between poorly accessible regional studies, often in national languages, and papers in international journals which put major emphasis on understanding processes rather thanparticularlandscapes.TheWorldGeomorphologicalLandscapesseriesisapeer-reviewed series which contains single and multi-authored books as well as edited volumes. World Geomorphological Landscapes – now indexed in Scopus® ! Adetoye Faniran (cid:129) Lawrence Kosoko Jeje (cid:129) Olutoyin A. Fashae (cid:129) Adeyemi O. Olusola Editors Landscapes and Landforms of Nigeria 123 Editors Adetoye Faniran Lawrence KosokoJeje Department ofGeography, Faculty of the Social Department ofGeography, Faculty of Social Sciences Sciences University of Ibadan Obafemi AwolowoUniversity Ibadan, Nigeria Ilé-Ifè, Nigeria Olutoyin A.Fashae Adeyemi O.Olusola Department ofGeography, Faculty of the Social Faculty of Environmental andUrban Change Sciences York University University of Ibadan Toronto, ON,Canada Ibadan, Nigeria ISSN 2213-2090 ISSN 2213-2104 (electronic) World Geomorphological Landscapes ISBN978-3-031-17971-6 ISBN978-3-031-17972-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-17972-3 ©SpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2023 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialis concerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublicationdoesnot imply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevantprotectivelawsand regulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Thepublisher,theauthors,andtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthisbookarebelieved tobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorsortheeditorsgiveawarranty, expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeen made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland ’ Series Editor s Preface LandformsandlandscapesvaryenormouslyacrosstheEarth,fromhighmountainstoendless plains. On a smaller scale, nature often surprises us creating shapes that look improbable. Many physical landscapes are so immensely beautiful that they received the highest possible recognition—they hold the status of World Heritage properties. Apart from often being immenselyscenic,landscapestellstoriesthatnotuncommonlycanbetracedbackintimefor tens of million years and include unique events. In addition, many landscapes owe their appearance and harmony not solely to the natural forces. For centuries, and even millennia, theyhavebeenshapedbyhumanswhohavemodifiedhillslopes,rivercourses,andcoastlines, anderectedstructuresthatoftenblendwiththenaturallandformstoforminseparableentities. Theselandscapesarestudiedbygeomorphology—‘thescienceofscenery’—apartofEarth Sciences that focuses on landforms,theirassemblages, surface,and subsurface processes that moulded them in the past and that change them today. To show the importance of geomor- phology in understanding the landscape and to present the beauty and diversity of the geo- morphological sceneries across the world, we have launched a book series World Geomorphological Landscapes. It aims to be a scientific library of monographs that present and explain physical landscapes, focusing on both representative and uniquely spectacular examples. Each book will contain details on the geomorphology of a particular country or a geographically coherent region. This volume presents the geomorphology of Nigeria—an equatorial African country of immense geomorphological diversity. The variety of Nigerian landscapesandlandformsreflectsboththeirgeologicalfoundationsandthepresenceofrocks of different origins, ages, and structural arrangement, as well as a strong climatic gradient, from humid tropics in the south to the Saharan desert in the north. Thus, within the geo- graphical limits of Nigeria, we find mountains and plateaus, inselbergs and residual ridges, plains and dune fields, landslides and gullies, large rivers and extensive wetlands, and a diversecoastline.ThehistoryofgeomorphologicalresearchinNigeriaismorethan100years long,andseveralimportantconceptsingeomorphologymaturedhere,tonametheroleofdeep weatheringintheoriginofdenudationallandscapesorthemodelofthetwo-phaseevolutionof granite inselbergs. The advent of satellite imagery, digital elevation models, and GIS tools helped to advance our understanding of Nigerian landscapes, and these recent efforts by Nigerian geomorphologists are the foundations of this volume. TheWorldGeomorphologicalLandscapesseriesisproducedunderthescientificpatronage of the International Association of Geomorphologists (IAG)—a society that brings together geomorphologists from all around the world. The IAG was established in 1989 and is an independent scientific association affiliated with the International Geographical Union (IGU) and the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). Its main aims are to promote geomorphology and to foster the dissemination of geomorphological knowledge. I believe that this lavishly illustrated series, which sticks to the scientific rigour, is the most appropriate means to fulfil these aims and to serve the geoscientific community. To this end, my great thanks go to the editors of the volume, particularly to Dr. Adeyemi Olusola, who committedthemselvestothischallengingprojectandcoordinatedtheworkofalargegroupof authors, from different institutions and backgrounds. I am also grateful to all individual contributorswhoagreedtotakepartinthisendeavourandsharedtheirlocalexpertisewiththe v vi SeriesEditor’sPreface global geomorphological community. I believe that the final product will serve as a much-needed and appreciated reference source about the geomorphology of Nigeria, which certainly has many more landform gems to reveal to the global world than we know about. Wrocław, Poland Piotr Migoń Introduction Nigeria is a country with wide and varied landscapes and landforms from the North to the SouthandfromtheEasttotheWest.Thebeautyofthecountryisseenasonetravelsfromthe coastalsouththroughthehighlandstowardsthehinterlandsandthesavannahsinthenorthern partofthecountry(Fig.1).Thesevariedlandformstellussomuchabouttheclimate andthe history of this part of West Africa and Africa at large. The broad pattern of landform development in any given area is normally determined by the structural and lithological variations. As rich and diverse as the country is, not much is known about the landforms within the country. Some authors have attempted to provide examples of the hidden beauty acrosseachregionsuchasbutarenotlimitedtoUdo(1970),Faniran(1970),FaniranandHigh (1971), Faniran and Areola (1974), Jeje (1970, 1980), Olumide and Olusola (2017), and Olusola (2019). These studies, apart from Udo (1970), were examples of landforms and their processes in selected locations or regions across the country. Udo (1970) was a blend of physical and human dimensions across the entire country. Fig.1 vii viii Introduction Most of the geomorphic evidence as presented in the literature confirms that between ca. 31,000 and 3000 B.P. two periods of desert conditions alternated with two wet phases in the present rain-forest areas (Jeje 1980). These two periods, the first arid period, witnessed ped- imentation, while the second was characterized by chemical weathering, etc. The two wet phasesarebasedonevidenceprovidedbyGroveandWarren(1968),Shaw(1976)andBurke et al. (1971). This evidence was based on lake-level fluctuations, lake deposits, and longitu- dinalandtraverseduneswithinandaroundLakeChadinthenortheasternpartofthecountry. Over the years, the study of geomorphology, especially interest in landforms, has gradually given way to more process-oriented studies, especially focused on fluvial and erosional pro- cesses in Nigeria. However, some structural geomorphologists/geologists are still very much interested in landform studies, processes, and materials. This is evidenced in some of the chapters presented in this book. This book showcases the rich diversity of landscapes and landforms of Nigeria and demonstrates the opportunity for geotourism. In common with other volumes in the series, the book is structured into three main parts. Part I (Chaps. 1–7), written by various authors and editors of this book, gives an overview of the geomorphic diversity of Nigeria while setting the tone for what is to be expected in subsequent parts. The book begins with the Geology of Nigeria (Chap. 1, Moshood Tijani): fromthecoasttothesavannahs.Thechapterprovidesabasisforunderstandinglandformsand landscapes within the country. Reference was also made to the rich mineral resources asso- ciatedwithvariousgeologicaldepositsacrossthecountrythathaveledtothedevelopmentand economic growth of Nigeria. Chapter 1 is followed by the climate of Nigeria (Chap. 2, Olumide Onafeso), discussed in relation to the varying geological landscapes. The next chapter(Chap.3,Gbadegesinandothers)givesabroadviewofthevegetationofthecountry, from the coastal mangroves to the Sudan savannah. The discussion focuses on the biogeo- graphical characteristics of the country as influenced by landscapes and landforms, whereas theinfluenceofmanintensifieschangesinvegetaldistributionacrossthelandscape.Chapter5 (LowerPlains,Tasi’uRilwanu)presentsthegeomorphologyoftheLower PlainsofNorthern Nigeria, their distribution and evolution. The distinctiveness of these landscapes against the plains in Southern Nigeria is discussed, chiefly considered as a result of the underlying geology.The next twochapters(Hills andRidges,Southwest (Jejeandothers) andSoutheast (Olayinka Ogunkoya), present interesting landform features within these regions in Nigeria. The evolution of these landforms is portrayed across these regions: also providing locations, names, and ancient histories that could serve as interesting geotourism spaces. The physical environmentpartendswithChap.7(Oyegunandothers,TheNigerDelta).TheNigerDeltais one of the largest deltas in the world, with the largest freshwater swamp in Africa and is a biodiversity hot spot because of its rich variety of plant and animal species. This chapter describes geomorphological/geological units, with an emphasis on the physical environment, land cover characteristics, and hydrocarbon pollution. The plains described here as against those of the Lower Plains in the North are homoclinal geomorphic structures that trend westwards and south-westwards. Part II of the book, focused on specific landscapes and landforms, present ten studies that represent the enormous geodiversity of the Nigerian landscapes. The specific landscapes and landforms are identified in Fig. 1. These landscapes are distinct and portray the geomorpho- logical richness of the humid tropical geomorphology. Part II begins in the northern territory ofthecountryandthenmovessouth,towardthecoast.Thefirstchapterinthispart(Chap.8, Daura and others) describes Lake Chad Mega Lake: a vast inland drainage system with geomorphic, hydrologic, and climatological significance across the West African Region and beyond. The geology of the Chad Basin shows that Quaternary sands of various origins dominate the basin. The Bodele Depression in northern Chad, one of the major landforms here,isatypicalexampleofalargedeflationhollow.Historically,theBodeleDepressionused tobepartofthepaleo-lake,beingthedeepestpartofthelakebasin,at155 mabovesealevel. DustarisingfromthisdepressiontravelsacrosstheAtlantic.Thenextchapter(Chap.9,Aliyu Nabegu)onthedunesofNorthernNigeriadescribestheuniqueandspectacularpatternsofthe Introduction ix dunes on the plains of Northern Nigeria. These dunes are dominantly linear, and they are relicts of the Quaternary period when the climate of northern Nigeria was drier. Today, the dunes are found in areas that receive as much as 1000 mm of rainfall per year. Moving southward,thefocusshiftstotheJosPlateau(Chap.10,Tasi’uandothers).TheJosPlateauis situated in the north-central part of Nigeria and is surrounded by plains on all sides. The landforms and landscapes of the plateau can be grouped into three units, namely hills and mountains, dissected terrains, and undulating terrain. The Jos Plateau is drained by a radial river network, with numerous waterfalls at topographic escarpments. Regional geology includes two major structural units: an Older Basement Complex and the Younger Granites. The Jos Plateau is an important site in the country with interesting ring complexes. The next chapter addresses the Kainji Dam and Lakes (Chap. 11, Olayinka Ogunkoya). The area coveredbytheKainjidam,LakeandNationalParkconstitutesadistinctlandscapewithinthe Nigerian scenery. The dam and lake were created along the River Niger approximately 105 km upstream from Jebba. Though the primary focus of the dam and associated impoundment is hydroelectricity generation, other ancillary purposes are flood control, nav- igation enhancement, irrigation, and fishery development. The lake’s annual hydrograph showstherearetwopeakinflows:the‘White’and‘Black’floods,occurringinSeptemberand February, respectively. Having completed a discussion about the landscapes and landforms within the northern regions of Nigeria, attention is shifted to southwestern Nigeria, with a discussionoftheriparianvegetation(Chap.12,Fashaeandothers),especiallyalongtheOgun RiverBasin.AcrossriversdrainingNigeria,theripariancompositionvariessignificantly.The southern part of the country presents more luxuriant vegetation along river courses than the northern part. However, biodiversity along river courses in Nigeria presents a scenery that is attractive to view and serves as economic gains for the local people. River Ogun, an alluvial riverthatisreportedinthisstudy,largelyepitomizesthesituationofriparianecosystemsinthe humid tropics. Typically found along this alluvial stretch are woody plants and light forests which influence riverbank stability. Still, within the southwestern part of Nigeria, the next chapter (Chap. 13, Fashae and others) describes the quartzite elevations. These landforms occurmainlyasridgesandlinesofhills,althoughbedrockoutcropsarerarebecausetheridges areoftencoveredbydebrisduetorockweathering.Thenextchapter(Chap.14,Eludoyinand others) presents various landforms from southwestern Nigeria: their geology, evolution, and location. The landforms discussed include inselbergs, pediments and corestones. The next three chapters focus on the southern part of the country, starting with Chapter 15 (Azubuike Ekwere) about the Obudu Plateau and the Oban Massif in the Cross River State. These Precambrian geologic domains bear relics of ancient geodynamics and evolutionary land forming processes, showcasingscenicmountainranges,deeply incisedvalleysandcascading waterfalls.AlsowithintheCrossRiverstatearelandformsassociatedwithsedimentaryrocks, typically exemplified by the karst geomorphology of the Mfamosing Formation. The fol- lowingisChap.16ongullyerosionintheeasternpartsofthecountry(GordonAmangabara). Gully erosion occurs in many parts of Nigeria under different geologic, climatic and soil conditions, with varyingdegrees of severity. However,thesoutheastern part ofNigeriaisthe major gully erosion precinct of the country. This chapter describes geomorphological pro- cesses leading to gully formation in the study area and highlights various gully erosion hotspots.Concluding thepart onspecificlandscapes andlandforms isChap.17(Oyegunand others),whichshowsthecoastalregionofNigeria.Thecoastalzonestretchesfromthe20 km barrierislandridges,whichabutdirectlywiththeAtlanticOcean,throughthetidalbasinsand creeks,totheferruginoussandsoftheBeninFormation.The800 kmlongcoastlineofNigeria iswitnessingacceleratederosionatsomesections,whileactiveaccretionisdominantatother stretches. Finally, the focus shifts from specific landscapes and landforms to geoheritage and geo- tourism.Wehavetwochapterswithinthispart.Chapter18(Fasonaandothers)introducesthe Islands of Lagos, which are part of the 200 km barrier–lagoon coast of southwestern Nigeria andshowconsiderablegeodiversity,includingbeaches,mangroves,andsand.TheIslandsare
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