kwame nkrumah university of science and technology, kumasi, ghana smallholder farmers ...

218 Pages·2016·3.03 MB·English

KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI, GHANA

SMALLHOLDER FARMERS‘ MITIGATION OF AND ADAPTATION
TO CLIMATE CHANGE AND CLIMATE VARIABILITY IN THE
BOSOMTWE DISTRICT OF ASHANTI REGION, GHANA

By

Sampson Yamba
B.A (Hons) Geography and Rural Development

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, in Partial Fulfilment of
the Requirement for the Award of a Degree
Of
MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY
In Geography and Rural Development
College of Humanities and Social Sciences

NOVEMBER 2016
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this MPhil thesis is my own production. Except for the
references cited, which I have duly acknowledged, no section of this thesis is a
reproduction of anybody‘s work submitted for the award of a degree in any university.
I therefore take full responsibility of the content.

Signature Date
……………………………….. ………………………….
Sampson Yamba (PG9418013)
(Student)

Certified by:

……………………………….. ………………………….
Mr. Divine Odame Appiah
(Supervisor)

……………………………….. ………………………….
Mrs. Lawrencia Pokuah Siaw
(Supervisor)

Certified by

……………………………….. ………………………….
Dr. Prince Osei-Wusu Adjei
(Head of Department)

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ABSTRACT
Agriculture has provided humanity with food and other resources necessary for
human development since time immemorial and is the backbone of many developing
economies. Recent patterns of anthropogenic induced greenhouse effect is however
posing a threat to this role. In the Bosomtwe District, known micro-climatic trends for
agricultural activities have become inconsistent and unpredictable, with consequential
effects on productive agricultural engagement. This study therefore examined
smallholder farmers‘ adaptation to climate change and the potential for agricultural
based climate change mitigation through Reduced Emission from Deforestation and
Forest Degradation with forest conservation and sustainable management (REDD+)
and Land Use Change (LUC) in the Bosomtwe District of Ashanti Region. Primary
data was acquired through interviews and questionnaire administration to key
informants and 152 smallholder farmers respectively who were selected from twelve
communities in the study area. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences and
Excel software were used to analyze the quantitative data while content analysis was
used to analyze the qualitative data. The study rejected the null hypotheses that there
is no significant relationship between annual average temperature and quantity of
maize produced. Results revealed that 93% of smallholder farmers in the Bosomtwe
District have adapted to climate change. Also 93% of respondents are still considering
other sources of livelihood activities other than agriculture which is the primary
occupation. Majority (64%) of them are willing to undertake REDD+ mechanisms as
avenues for benefits and conservation of carbon stocks in trees. Although the pattern
of land use change is constraining farmers‘ ability to adapt to climate variability and
climate change, land use change is not climate induced. It is recommended that the
Ministry of Agriculture policies be directed towards streamlining autonomous
adaptation, securing farmers livelihood and harnessing local potential through a
participatory approach for the effective mitigation and adaptation to climate change at
the community level.

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TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION.......................................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ iii
TABLE OF CONTENT .............................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................... xi
DEDICATION.......................................................................................................... xiii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................... xiv

CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................... 1
FARMERS’ MITIGATION OF AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE
CHANGE ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT .............................................................................. 6
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS .............................................................................. 8
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ..................................................................... 8
1.4.1 Main Objective .................................................................................................8
1.4.2 Specific Objectives ...........................................................................................8
1.5 HYPOTHESIS AND PROPOSITIONS ........................................................... 9
1.5.1 Hypothesis ........................................................................................................9
1.5.2 Propositions ......................................................................................................9
1.6 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................... 9
1.6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................9
1.6.2 Research Design .............................................................................................10
1.6.2 Research Approach .........................................................................................10
1.6.3 Types and Sources of Data .............................................................................11
1.6.4. Sampling Procedure .......................................................................................11
1.6.5 Analyses and Presentation of Findings ..........................................................13
1.6.6 Justification of Study ......................................................................................14
1.6.7 Scope of the Study ..........................................................................................14
1.6.8 Limitations of the Study .................................................................................15
1.6.9 Organization of the Study ...............................................................................15
1.6.10 Ethical Considerations ....................................................................................16

CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................... 17
CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION WITH
AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST LAND USE NEXUS ...................................... 17
2.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 17
2.2. GLOBAL TO NATIONAL TRENDS OF CLIMATE VARIABILITY
AND CLIMATE CHANGE ........................................................................... 17
2.2.1 Past and Current Causes Of Climate Variability and Climate Change ..........17
2.2.2 Global Trends of Climate Variability and Climate Change ...........................19
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2.2.3 Climate Variability and Climate Change Trends in Africa ............................20
2.2.4 Ghana‘s Climate Change: Trends and Experiences .......................................22
2.3 SUSTAINABLE FARMERS‘ ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION
STRATEGIES TO CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CLIMATE
CHANGE ....................................................................................................... 25
2.3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................25
2.3.2 Agriculture Related Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation
Efforts in Africa ..............................................................................................26
2.3.3 Sustainable Agricultural Greenhouse Mitigation and Adaptation to
Climate Change ..............................................................................................28
2.3.4 Experience of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation in Ghana ............30
2.4 FARMERS‘ LIVELIHOOD SECURITY AMIDST CHANGING
CLIMATE ...................................................................................................... 34
2.4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................34
2.4.2 African Farmers Livelihood Security .............................................................35
2.4.3 Security of Farmers‘ Livelihoods in Ghana ...................................................37
2.5 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST LAND USE POTENTIAL FOR
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF REDD+ AT THE GRASSROOTS ............. 39
2.5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................39
2.5.2 The REDD+ and Deforestation Nexus ...........................................................39
2.5.3 The Potential for Agroforestry .......................................................................40
2.5.4 Challenges of Agriculture and Forest Land Use (AFOLU) ...........................42
2.6 AGRICULTURAL LAND USE CHANGE AND
MODIFICATION INDUCED CLIMATE CHANGE ................................... 45
2.6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................45
2.6.2 Land Use and Climate Mitigation Potential in the Temperate and Tropics ...45
2.6.3 Land Use Change (LUC): Drivers, Trends and Interactions ..........................46
2.6.4 Land Use Change in Ghana ............................................................................48
2.7 ACTION THEORY ON ADAPTATION: A THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK .............................................................................................. 50
2.7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................50
2.7.2 The Stimulus Concept ....................................................................................51
2.7.3 The Exposure Unit Concept ...........................................................................52
2.7.4 The Impact Concept .......................................................................................52
2.7.5 The Operators and Actions Concepts .............................................................53
2.7.6 The Receptor Concept ....................................................................................53
2.7.7 The Concept of Process and Actions ..............................................................54
2.7.8 The Concept of Means and Conditions ..........................................................54
2.8 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK................................................................... 55
2.8.1 Climate Change and Food Security: A Conceptual Framework ....................55

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CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................... 63
BIOPHYSICAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN THE BOSOMTWE DISTRICT ..................... 63
3.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 63
3.2 LOCATION AND SIZE ................................................................................ 63
3.3 PHYSICAL FEATURES ............................................................................... 65
3.3.1 Relief and Drainage ........................................................................................65
3.3.2 Climate ...........................................................................................................65
3.3.3 Vegetation ......................................................................................................65
3.4 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS ..................................................... 66
3.4.1 Population Size and Growth Rates .................................................................66
3.4.2 Population Density .........................................................................................66
3.4.3 Household Sizes .............................................................................................66
3.4.4 Age and Sex Composition ..............................................................................67
3.4.5 Land Related Practices ...................................................................................68
3.5 ECONOMIC AND LIVELIHOOD ACTIVITIES ......................................... 68

CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................... 70
SMALLHOLDER FARMERS’ ADAPTATION STRATEGIES TO CLIMATE
CHANGE: THE EVIDENCE ................................................................................... 70
4.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 70
4.2 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS..... 70
4.3 TRENDS OF CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE
IN THE BOSOMTWE DISTRICT ................................................................ 72
4.3.1 Analysis of Rainfall Trend .............................................................................72
4.3.2 Analysis of Temperature Trends ....................................................................84
4.4 SMALLHOLDER ADAPTATIONS TO CLIMATE VARIABILITY
AND CLIMATE CHANGE ........................................................................... 97
4.4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................97
4.4.2 Factors Determining Adaptation in the Bosomtwe District ...........................98
4.4.3 On-Farm Adaptation Practices .....................................................................102
4.4.4 On-Farm Extensification Practices ...............................................................106
4.4.5 Likelihood of Farmers Persistently Practicing a Particular Adaptation
Strategy .........................................................................................................108
4.4.6 A Comparative Analysis of Adaptation Practices Based on Proximity of
Communities to Lake Bosomtwe .................................................................111
4.5 AN ASSESSMENT OF ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOODS OF
SMALLHOLDER FARMERS AS AN OFF-FARM ADAPTATION
STRATEGY IN THE FACE OF CLIMATE CHANGE ............................. 120
4.5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................120
4.5.2 Willingness to Consider Changing Current Occupation ..............................121
4.5.3 Farmers‘ Alternative Livelihood Activities .................................................123
4.5.4 Comparative Analysis of Alternative Livelihood Activities of
Smallholder Farmers ....................................................................................129
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CHAPTER FIVE: .................................................................................................... 132
AGRICULTURE BASED CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION: THE
EVIDENCE .............................................................................................................. 132
5.1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 132
5.1.1 Willingness of Smallholder Farmers to Adopt REDD+ ...............................133
5.1.2 Relationship between Land Tenure Arrangement and REDD+ Benefits .....135
5.1.3 Smallholder Farmers‘ Knowledge of the Benefits of Forests ......................137
5.2 PATTERNS OF AGRICULTURAL LAND USE CHANGE ..................... 140
5.2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................140
5.2.2 Trends of Agricultural Lands Use Change among Smallholder Farmers ....141
5.2.3 Trends of Agricultural Land Use Modification ............................................143
5.2.4 Implication of Settlement of Agrarian Lands ...............................................145
5.2.5 Relevance of Conserved Agricultural Land and Land Cover Change
to CVCC .......................................................................................................147

CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................ 150
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................... 150
6.1 SUMMARY ................................................................................................. 150
6.1.1 Trends of Climate Variability and Climate Change .....................................151
6.1.2 On-farm and Off-Farm Adaptation Practices of Smallholder Farmers ........151
6.1.3 The Potential for Reducing Deforestation and Forest Degradation with
Conservation and Sustainable Forest Management among Smallholder
Farmers .........................................................................................................153
6.1.4. Agricultural Land Use Change and Modification Patterns among
Smallholder Farmers ....................................................................................153
6.2 CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................... 154
6.3 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................. 155
6.3.1 Investments in Communications ..................................................................155
6.3.2 Adaptation and Livelihoods: A Holistic Approach ......................................156
6.3.3 Local Participation in REDD+ and Environmental Resource
Management .................................................................................................157
6.3.4 Collaboration Forums ...................................................................................157
6.3.5 Limitations of the Study and Issues for Further Studies ..............................158

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 159
APPENDIX ............................................................................................................... 187

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Sample Size Determination for Each Study Community. ...................... 13
Table 3.1: Age Distribution of Population ............................................................... 67
Table 3.2: Structure of District Economy ................................................................ 69
Table 4.1: Level of education of respondents .......................................................... 71
Table 4.2: Linear regression showing the relationship between average annual
temperature and annual quantity of maize .............................................. 95
Table 4.3: Multiple regression on factors determining annual maize yield. ............ 96
Table 4.4: Regression on factors determining adaptation ........................................ 98
Table 4.5: Logistic Regression table likelihood of farmers persistently
practicing a particular adaptation strategy ............................................ 110
Table 4.6: Logistic regression table on likelihood to consider changing current
primary occupation ............................................................................... 123
Table 4.7: Farmers switching to alternative livelihood activities due to the
consistency and predictability of rainfall. ............................................. 128
Table 5.1: Correlation between monthly income and number of trees planted. .... 135
Table 5.2: Smallholder farmers‘ knowledge of the benefits of forests .................. 138
Table 5.3: Correlation between total number of farms owned in the last fifteen
years and the number that has been changed. ....................................... 141
Table 5.4: Cross Tabulation of Pattern of Agricultural Land Use Change and
the Location of Communities................................................................ 143
Table 5.5: Location of community and constrains in farm extensification............ 146

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Global land surface temperature and carbon dioxide from
1750 to 2000. ......................................................................................... 19
Figure 2.2: Rainfall regimes in Africa (1900-2000) ................................................ 22
Figure 2.3 Climate Change and Food Security: A Conceptual Framework ........... 57
Figure 2.4: Farmers Mitigation of and Adaptation to Climate Variability: A
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................... 59
Figure 3.1: Bosomtwe District in the National and Regional context with the
study communities ................................................................................. 64
Figure 4.1: Intra annual rainfall distribution from 1981-1983. ................................ 73
Figure 4.2: Intra annual rainfall distribution from 1984-1986 ................................. 74
Figure 4.3: Intra annual rainfall distribution from 1987-1989. ................................ 75
Figure 4.4: Intra annual rainfall distribution from 1990-1992 ................................. 76
Figure 4.5: Intra annual rainfall distribution from 1993-1995 ................................. 77
Figure 4.6: Intra annual rainfall distribution from 1996-1998 ................................. 78
Figure 4.7: Intra annual rainfall distribution from 1999-2001. ................................ 79
Figure 4.8: Intra annual rainfall distribution from 2002-2004 ................................. 80
Figure 4.9: Intra annual rainfall distribution from 2005-2007 ................................. 81
Figure 4.10: Intra annual rainfall distribution from 2008-2011 ................................. 82
Figure 4.11: Mean Annual rainfall anomalies from 1981-2011. ............................... 83
Figure 4.12: Intra annual temperature distribution from 1981–1983 ........................ 85
Figure 4.13: Intra annual temperature distribution from 1984-1986 ......................... 86
Figure 4.14: Intra annual temperature distribution from 1987– 989 ......................... 87
Figure 4.15: Intra annual temperature distribution from 1990 – 1992 ...................... 87
Figure 4.16: Intra annual temperature distribution from 1993–1995 ........................ 88
Figure 4.17: Intra annual temperature distribution from 1996-1998 ......................... 89
Figure 4.18: Intra annual temperature distribution from 1999–2001. ....................... 90
Figure 4.19: Intra annual temperature distribution from 2002-2004 ......................... 90
Figure 4.20: Intra annual temperature distribution from 2005–2007. ....................... 91
Figure 4.21: Intra annual temperature distribution from 2008-2011 ......................... 92
Figure 4.22: Mean Annual temperature anomalies from 1981-2011. ........................ 93
Figure 4.23: Pie chart showing adaptation categorization in the Bosomtwe
District. ................................................................................................ 102
Figure 4.24: On-farm adaptation (intensification) practices among smallholder
farmers in the Bosomtwe District. ....................................................... 106
Figure 4.25: Extensification (adaptation) practices among smallholder farmers
in the Bosomtwe District. .................................................................... 108
Figure 4.26: Intensification practices among communities farther from Lake
Bosomtwe. ........................................................................................... 115
Figure 4.27: Intensification practices among communities close to Lake
Bosomtwe ............................................................................................ 116
Figure 4.28: On-farm extensification practices in the selected communities. ......... 118
Figure 4.29: Alternative Income Generating Activities ........................................... 124
Figure 4.30: Number of years of involvement in alternative income activities ....... 127
Figure 5.1: Smallholder farmers‘ knowledge of REDD+ in the Bosomtwe
District ................................................................................................. 132
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Figure 5.2: Land tenure in the Bosomtwe District. ................................................ 136
Figure 5.3: Tenure implications for access to REDD+ benefits ............................ 136
Figure 5.4: Agricultural land use modification in the Bosomtwe District ............. 144
Figure 5.5: Land use change constraining expansion of farms .............................. 145
Figure 5.6: Effects of agricultural land use and land cover change ....................... 147

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