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MIGRATION, MINORITIES AND CITIZENSHIP General Editors: Zig Layton-Henry, Professor of Politics, University of Warwick; and Daniele Joly, Director, Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations, University of Warwick This series has been developed to promote books on a wide range of topics concerned with migration and settlement, immigration policy, refugees, the integration and engagement of minorities, dimensions of social exclusion, racism and xenophobia, ethnic mobilization, ethnicity and nationalism. The focus of the series is multidisciplinary and international. The series publishes both theoretical and empirical works based on original research. Priority is given to single-authored books but edited books of high qUality are considered. Titles include: Naomi Carmon (editor) IMMIGRATION AND INTEGRATION IN POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES Theoretical Analysis and Policy-Related Research Adrian Favell PHILOSOPHIES OF INTEGRATION Immigration and the Idea of Citizenship in France and Britain Daniele Joly HAVEN OR HELL? Asylum Policies and Refugees in Europe SCAPEGOATS AND SOCIAL ACTORS The Exclusion and Integration of Minorities in Western and Eastern Europe Simon Holdaway and Anne-Marie Barron RESIGNERS? THE EXPERIENCE OF BLACK AND ASIAN POLICE OFFICERS Jji)rgen S. Nielsen TOWARDS A EUROPEAN ISLAM John Rex ETHNIC MINORITIES IN THE MODERN NATION STATE Working Papers in the Theory of Multiculturalism and Political Integration Carl-Ulrik Schierup (editor) SCRAMBLE FOR THE BALKANS Nationalism, Globalism and the Political Economy of Reconstruction Steven Vertovec and Ceri Peach (editors) ISLAM IN EUROPE The Politics of Religion and Community Osten Wahlbeck KURDISH DlASPORAS A Comparative Study of Kurdish Refugee Communities Migration, Minorities and Citizenship Series Standing Order ISBN 978-0-333-71047-0 (outside North America only) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and the ISBN quoted above. Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG2l 6XS, England Kurdish Diasporas A Comparative Study of Kurdish Refugee Communities Osten Wahlbeck Abo Akademi University and Institute of Migration Turku, Finland * ISBN 978-1-349-41199-3 ISBN 978-0-230-28893-5 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230288935 © Osten Wahlbeck 1999 Reprint of the original edition 1999 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court wn Road, London 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Published by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin's Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN 978-0-333-75011-7 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 98-44644 For Ella Contents List of Figures and Tables viii Acknowledgements ix Abbreviations and Glossary x Introduction 1 1 Inclusion and Exclusion of Refugees: Rethinking Concepts and Theories 8 2 Politics and Forced Migration in Kurdistan 39 3 Resettlement Policies: Two Different Models 64 4 Towards a Wider Understanding of the Refugee Experience 88 5 The Process of Integration 123 6 Kurdish Associations: Community Work and Diasporic Politics 152 7 Conclusions 179 Appendix: The Fieldwork 191 Notes 196 References 202 Index 215 vii List of Figures and Tables Figure 3.1 Asylum seekers in the United Kingdom, 1982-96 67 3.2 Decisions on asylum applications made in the United Kingdom, 1982-96 68 3.3 Asylum applications from Turkey, Iran and Iraq made in the United Kingdom, 1985-96 73 3.4 Decisions on asylum applications from Turkey, Iran and Iraq in the United Kingdom, 1985-90 and 1995-96 74 3.5 Immigration and emigration in Finland, 1945-97 76 3.6 Foreign citizens and refugees living in Finland, 1980-97 77 3.7 Asylum seekers and the refugee quota in Finland, 1979-97 79 Table 3.1 The estimated number of Kurds and citizens from Turkey, Iraq and Iran living in Finland 84 viii Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to all the Kurdish refugees and organizations who helped me and gave me informa tion during this study. I want to thank you for your friendship, hospitality and patience during the fieldwork. Unfortunately, be cause of the situation in Kurdistan today, you all have to remain anonymous. This book is based on research made for a PhD dissertation at the University of Warwick in the UK. I am grateful to my super visors, Dr Daniele Joly at the Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations and Professor Robin Cohen at the Department of Sociology, whose expertise in this area of study was invaluable. The Institute of Migration in Turku, Finland, provided me with the space and time needed to finish this book. Inspiration and support was given by both staff and students at these two institutions. Many other persons have been helpful in many different ways and at different stages of the research process. I especially want to thank Professor Robert Burgess, Professor Emeritus Elizabeth Colson, Dr Peter Fairbrother, Dr Clive Harris, Professor Amir Hassanpour, Dr Mark Johnson, Dr Ronald Kaye, Professor Zig Layton-Henry, Dr Mike McDaid, Dr Philip Muus, Professor Emeritus John Rex, Professor Tom Sandlund, Professor Carl-Ulrik Schierup, Mr Omar Sheikhmous and Professor Matti Simila. The valuable collections in the libraries at the School of Orien tal and African Studies in London and at the Refugee Studies Programme at Oxford University were of great help during this project. Support for the completion of this study was provided by the Academy of Finland and the KONE Foundation. I am also grateful for the support given from Agneta och Carl-Erik Olins stipendiefond, Svenska KuIturfonden, Oskar Oflunds Stiftelse and the Overseas Research Student Award. ix Abbreviations and Glossary DSS Department of Social Security ELR Exceptional Leave to Remain ERNK Eniya Rizgariya Netewa Kurdistan, National Libera tion Front of Kurdistan KCC Kurdish Cultural Centre KDP Kurdish Democratic Party (Iraq) KDP-Iran Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran KWA Kurdistan Workers' Association PKK Partiya Karkeren Kurdistan, Kurdistan Workers' Party PUK Patriotic Union of Kurdistan [t] Translation UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Newroz: Kurdish New Year (21 March) Peshmerga: Kurdish guerrilla soldier. The term is used mainly in southern Kurdistan (i.e. Iraq and Iran) x

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In this important theoretical contribution to the area of refugee studies based on ethnographic field work among Kurdish refugees, the author has uniquely combined empirical evidence and contemporary sociological theories of diasporas and transnationalism. The book provides essential reading for any