Knowledge Needs and Information Extraction www.it-ebooks.info Tomyson,Alexis. www.it-ebooks.info Knowledge Needs and Information Extraction Towards an Artificial Consciousness Nicolas Turenne Series Editor Jean-Charles Pomerol www.it-ebooks.info Firstpublished2013inGreatBritainandtheUnitedStatesbyISTELtdandJohnWiley&Sons,Inc. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permittedundertheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988,thispublicationmayonlybereproduced, storedortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withthepriorpermissioninwritingofthepublishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentionedaddress: ISTELtd JohnWiley&Sons,Inc. 27-37StGeorge’sRoad 111RiverStreet LondonSW194EU Hoboken,NJ07030 UK USA www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com ©ISTELtd2013 TherightsofNicolasTurennetobeidentifiedastheauthorofthisworkhavebeenassertedbyhimin accordancewiththeCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988. LibraryofCongressControlNumber: 2012950088 BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData ACIPrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978-1-84821-515-3 PrintedandboundinGreatBritainbyCPIGroup(UK)Ltd.,Croydon,SurreyCR04YY www.it-ebooks.info Table of Contents Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Chapter1.Consciousness:anAncientandCurrentTopicofStudy. . . . . 1 1.1.Multidisciplinarityofthesubject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2.Terminologicaloutlook. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3.Theologicalpointofview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.4.Notionofbeliefandautonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.5.Scientificschoolsofthought. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.6.Thequestionofexperience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Chapter2.Self-motivationonaDailyBasis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.1.Innewsblogs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.2.Marketing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.3.Appearance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.4.Mysticalexperiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.5.Infantheism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.6.Addiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Chapter3.TheNotionofNeed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.1.Hierarchyofneeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.1.1.Level-1needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.1.2.Level-3needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 3.2.Thesatiationcycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 www.it-ebooks.info vi KnowledgeNeedsandInformationExtraction Chapter4.TheModelsofSocialOrganization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 4.1.Theentrepreneurialmodel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 4.2.Motivationalandethicalstates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Chapter5.SelfTheories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Chapter6.TheoriesofMotivationinPsychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 6.1.Behaviorandcognition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 6.2.Theoryofself-efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 6.3.Theoryofself-determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 6.4.Theoryofcontrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 6.5.Attributiontheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 6.6.Standardsandself-regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 6.7.Devianceandpathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 6.8.TemporalMotivationTheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 6.9.Effectofobjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 6.10.Contextofdistancelearning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 6.11.Maintenancemodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 6.12.Effectofnarrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 6.13.Effectofeviction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 6.14.Effectoftheteacher–studentrelationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 6.15.Modelofpersistenceandchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 6.16.Effectoftheman–machinerelationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Chapter7.TheoriesofMotivationinNeurosciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 7.1.Academicliteratureonthesubject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 7.2.PsychologyandNeurosciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 7.3.Neurophysiologicaltheory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 7.4.Relationshipbetweenthemotivationalsystemandtheemotions . . . . 56 7.5.Relationshipbetweenthemotivationalsystemandlanguage . . . . . . 58 7.6.Relationshipbetweenthemotivationalsystemandneed . . . . . . . . . 59 Chapter8.LanguageModeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 8.1.Issuessurroundinglanguage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 8.2.Interactionandlanguage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 8.3.Developmentandlanguage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 8.4.Schoolsofthoughtinlinguisticsciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 8.5.Semanticsandcombination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 8.6.Functionalgrammar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 8.7.Meaning-TextTheory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 8.8.Generativelexicon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 www.it-ebooks.info TableofContents vii 8.9.Theoryofsynergeticlinguistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 8.10.Integrativeapproachtolanguageprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 8.11.Newspacesfordateproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 8.12.Notionofontology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 8.13.Knowledgerepresentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Chapter9.ComputationalModelingofMotivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 9.1.Notionofacomputationalmodel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 9.2.Multi-agentsystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 9.3.Artificialself-organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 9.4.Artificialneuralnetworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 9.5.Freewilltheorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 9.6.Theprobabilisticutilitymodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 9.7.Theautoepistemicmodel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Chapter10.HypothesisandControlofCognitiveSelf-Motivation . . . . . 93 10.1.Socialgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 10.2.Innateself-motivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 10.3.Masscommunication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 10.4.TheCost–Benefitratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 10.5.Socialrepresentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 10.6.Therelationalenvironment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 10.7.Perception. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 10.8.Identity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 10.9.Socialenvironment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 10.10.Historicalantecedence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 10.11.Ethics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Chapter11.AModelofSelf-MotivationwhichAssociates LanguageandPhysiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 11.1.Anewmodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 11.2.Architectureofaself-motivationsubsystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 11.3.Levelofcertainty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 11.4.Needforself-motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 11.5.Notionofmotive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 11.6.Ageandlocation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 11.7.Uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 11.8.Effectofspontaneity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 11.9.Effectofdependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 11.10.Effectofemulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 11.11.Transitionofbelief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 www.it-ebooks.info viii KnowledgeNeedsandInformationExtraction 11.12.Effectofindividualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 11.13.Modelingofthegroupsofbeliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Chapter12.ImpactofSelf-MotivationonWrittenInformation . . . . . . . 123 12.1.Platformforproductionandconsultationoftexts . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 12.2.Informationalmeasureofthemotivesofself-motivation . . . . . . . . 124 12.2.1.Intra-phrasticextraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 12.2.2.Inter-phrasticextraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 12.2.3.Meta-phrasticextraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 12.3.Theinformationmarket. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 12.4.Typesofdata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 12.5.Theoutlinesoftextmining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 12.6.Softwareeconomy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 12.7.Standardsandmetadata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 12.8.Open-endedquestionsandchallengesfortext-miningmethods . . . . 140 12.9.Notionoflexicalnoise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 12.10.Webmining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 12.11.Miningapproach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Chapter13.Non-TransversalTextMiningTechniques . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 13.1.Constructivistactivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 13.2.Typicalityassociatedwiththedata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 13.3.Specificcharacteroftextmining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 13.4.Supervised,unsupervisedandsemi-supervisedtechniques. . . . . . . 149 13.5.Qualityofamodel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 13.6.Thescenario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 13.7.Representationofadatum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 13.8.Standardization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 13.9.Morphologicalpreprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 13.10.Selectionandweightingofterminologicalunits. . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 13.11.Statisticalpropertiesoftextualunits:lexicallaws . . . . . . . . . . . 154 13.12.Sub-lexicalunits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 13.14.Shallowparsingorsuperficialsyntacticanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 13.15.Argumentationmodels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Chapter14.TransversalTextMiningTechniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 14.1.Mixedandinterdisciplinarytextminingtechniques . . . . . . . . . . . 159 14.1.1.Supervised,unsupervisedandsemi-supervisedtechniques . . . . 159 14.2.Techniquesforextractionofnamedentities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 14.3.Inversemethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 14.4.LatentSemanticAnalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 www.it-ebooks.info TableofContents ix 14.5.Iterativeconstructionofsub-corpora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 14.6.Orderingapproachesorrankingmethod. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 14.7.Useofontology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 14.8.Interdisciplinarytechniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 14.9.Informationvisualizationtechniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 14.10.Thek-meanstechnique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 14.11.NaiveBayesclassifiertechnique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 14.12.Thek-nearestneighbors(KNN)technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 14.13.Hierarchicalclusteringtechnique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 14.14.Density-basedclusteringtechniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 14.15.Conditionalfields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 14.16.Nonlinearregressionandartificialneuralnetworks . . . . . . . . . . 176 14.17.Modelsofmulti-agentsystems(MASs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 14.18.Co-clusteringmodels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 14.19.Dependencymodels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 14.20.Decisiontreetechnique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 14.21.TheSupportVectorMachine(SVM)technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 14.22.Setoffrequentitems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 14.23.Geneticalgorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 14.24.Linkanalysiswithatheoreticalgraphmodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 14.25.Linkanalysiswithoutagraphmodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 14.26.Qualityofamodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 14.27.Modelselection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Chapter15.FieldsofInterestforTextMining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 15.1.Theavenuesintextmining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 15.1.1.Organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 15.1.2.Discovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 15.2.Aboutdecisionsupport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 15.3.Competitiveintelligence(vigilance) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 15.4.Aboutstrategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 15.5.Aboutarchivemanagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 15.6.Aboutsociologyandthelegalfield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 15.7.Aboutbiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 15.8.Aboutotherdomains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 www.it-ebooks.info Introduction The title of this book is both subversive and ambitious. It is subversive because few academic publications deal with this subject. There has, of course, been work doneinroboticsonartificiallyreproducinga“human”movement.Onecanalsofind more cognitive works about the way of reasoning – i.e. storing and structuring information to induce the validity of a relation between two pieces of information. However,theterm“artificialconsciousness”isnotapplicabletoanyoftheseworks. Thereisprobablyaspiritualconnotationwhichphilosophershavedodgedbycalling thediscipline“reason”or“rationality”. The book presents a theory of consciousness which is unique and sustainable in nature, based on physiological and cognitive-linguistic principles controlled by a numberofsocio-psycho-economicfactors. Chapter1 recontextualizes this notion of consciousness with a certain current aspect. In order to anchor this theory, which draws upon various disciplines, this book presents a number of different theories, all of which have been abundantly studied by scientists from both a theoretical and experimental standpoint. These issues are addressedbyChapters4(modelsofsocialorganization),5(egotheories),6(theories ofthemotivationalsysteminpsychology),7(theoriesofthemotivationalsystemin neurosciences), 8 (language modeling) and 9 (computational modeling of motivation). This book is adeliberate attempt to be eclectic – sometimes presenting fuzzy or nearlyesotericpointsofview.However,aboveall,itcarefullyhighlightsthecontext with validated and accepted theories drawn from academic disciplines which are recognized at the scientific and international levels: psychology, physiology, computing, linguistics and sociology. These are highly technical disciplines, with extensiveanalyticaldepthandalonghistory,fromwhichitwasnecessarytoisolate www.it-ebooks.info
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