Knowing, gathering and eating: Knowledge and attitudes about wild food in an Isan village in Northeastern Thailand

20 Pages·2000·11.2 MB·English

by  Prapimporn Somnasang

Journal of Ethnobiology 197-216 Winter
20(2):
KNOWING, GATHERING AND KNOWLEDGE AND
EATING:
ABOUT WILD FOOD AN
ATTITUDES ISAN VILLAGE
IN IN
NORTHEASTERN THAILAND
SOMNASANG
PRAPIMPORN
Department Community
Medicine
of
Khon
Kaen
University
Kaen
Klion 40002, Thailand
GERALDINE MORENO-BLACK
Department Anthropology
of
Oregon
University
of
Eugene, Oregon 74403
—
ABSTRACT. undergoing economic and
In societies social transformation, the
level of knowledge about local resources, and attitudes toward them, can be
affected by a variety of factors including cultural identity, identification with local
traditions, cultural transformations, economic status, education level, age and
gender. To address the topic of what factors affect traditional wild plant use and
we
knowledge in Northeastern Thailand interviewed and tested male and female
villagers in different age categories. Each interviewee was asked to identify and
provide information about photographs of 40 wild food items. Additional
information was obtained through ethnographic research in the village. The results
indicate that there are gender differences in the use and procurement of wild food
items. However, most villagers, despite their economic level, still prefer wild food
Using knowledge and was found
over cultivated food. a attitude test, also that
it
women
are better able to identify items correctly, but that there are no gender
differences in knowledge of other factors pertaining to the wild food items.
Additionally, adults consistently scored higher than children. Consequently age,
and thus indirectly, exposure to traditional subsistence practices, also is related to
Our knowledge
knowledge about wild food resources. results suggest about wild
community
food being within the despite retention of the taste for these
lost
is
them
items and desire to retain in the diet.
Key words: Thailand, wild food, food preference, gender, age.
—
RESUMEN. En sociedades sometidas a transformaciones economicas y sociales,
pueden
nivel de conocimiento sobre recursos locales y actitudes sobre ella ser
el
afectadas por una variedad de factores, entre ellas la identidad cultural,
identificacion con tradiciones locales, transformaciones culturales, el estado
examinamos
economico, nivel de educacion, edad y sexo. Entrevisitamos y a varios
aldeanos femeninos masculinos de edades diferentes para exponer cuales factores
y
conocimiento de plantas salvajes en region Noreste
afectan uso tradicional y el la
el
de Tailandia. Se pidio a cada aldeano que identificara cuarenta fotos de articulos
el
de
de comida Obtuvimos informacion adicional atraves investigaciones
salvaje,
hechas en mismo pueblo. Los resultados indicaron que existen
etnograficas
el
en uso obtencion de articulos de comida salvaje. Sin embargo, la
diferencias el y
SOMNASANG MORENO-BLACK
No.
and 2
198 Vol. 20,
comida
mayoria de los aldeanos, a pesar de su nivel economico, prefieren salvaje
a comida cultivada. La linica diferencia que se revelo usando pruebas de
conocimiento aptitud fue que mujeres lograron mejores resultados
y las
de comida correctamente. Adicionalmente, los
identificando los articulos salvaje
mas que La edad, indirectamente
adultos dieron resultados altos los ninos. e la
de tambien estan relacionadas
exposicion a practicas tradicionales subsistencia,
al conocimiento de comida salvaje se pierde ante la comunidad, a pesar de la
retencion del saber de estos articulos y deseo de mantenerlos en la dieta.
el
—
RESUMfi. Dans les societes qui entreprennet des transformations, le niveau de
cormaissance sur les ressources locales et les attitudes envers ces ressources, sont
affectes par une variete d'agents inculant I'identite culturelle, I'identification avec
economique,
des traditions locales, des transformations culturelles, le statut le
niveau d'education, Tage et le sexe. Pour aborder le sujet des agents qui affectent
I'usage traditionelle des plantes sauvages cormaissance des plantes au nord-
et la
de Thailande, on des entrevues on examine homes femmes
est la a fait et a les et les
On
des villages d'ages differents. a demande a chaque sujet d'identifier et de
donner des renseignements de quarante aliments sauvages qui ont ete
photographie. Les informations supplementaires ont ete obtenu a travers la
recherche ethnographique dans le village. Les resultants montrent qu'il y a des
dans
differences entre les sexes Tacquisition et I'usage des aliments sauvages.
Cependant, plupart des habitants du malgre economique,
la village, leur statut
preferent aliments sauvages aux aliments Employant un examen de
les cultives.
connaissance et d'attitude, on a egalement note que les femmes sont meilleures a
I'identification precise des articles mais n'existe pas une difference de
il
connaissance entre les seces concernant les autre facteurs a propos des articles
De
sauvages. plus, les marques des adultes etaient invariablment plus hautes que
celles des enfants. Par consequent, I'age, indirectement, ainsi que I'exposition aux
de
practiques traditionelles subsistance, fait egalement partie de la connaissance
sur les ressources de la nourriture sauvage. Les resultants suggerent que
la
connaissance des aliments sauvages en perdue en dedans de
est train d'etre
la
communaute du
en depit fait qu'ils retiennent le gout pour ces articles et leur
desir de les retenir dans leur regime.
INTRODUCTION
Human-plant
one
interactions are aspect of a society's construction of nature
and
knowledge
influence the people have about
their envirorunent. In particular, re-
begun
searchers have to ask questions that highlight v^hy people know about some
and
plants not others (Nolan and what
1998) determines these perceptions. Cul-
tural factors often take precedence over
other considerations such as species
obtainin
how
animals speaks people view
to themselves
ment. Thus, and
social relationships perceptions about
the envirorunent
procurement
in the of wild food
resources.
am
on
ment and ways
the individuals preserve and transform and
their culture
We
environment.
specifically focus on knowledge of wild or semi-domesticated
JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
Winter 2000
199
plants and animals and practices concerning the use of these resources because
they create an intensive interaction with the physical and environment.
social
home
Since consumption usually occurs in the has often been assumed that
it
women
control the production of consumption as well as the food habits of the
family (Mcintosh and Zey Levin Llowever, non-domesticated/gath-
1989; 1943).
ered and semi-domesticated food enters the household through a variety of
may
channels. Traditional foods, which form an important part of the be
diet,
still
procured by female head household, husband, male and female
the of
relatives,
friends, neighbors and children. Within a community, knowledge, patterns of
re-
source use, and the landscape, are affected by gender, class, economic level and
personal experiences. Consequently, theories about the patterns of decisions
life
and must Complex
actions that occur take these differences into account. local
much
do our understanding ways
histories of resource use will to increase of the
management
that local systems of resource transform themselves in response to
ways which
global processes; in particular they can help us evaluate the in the
undermined
sustainability of rural production practices are ensured or (Collins
One paper knowledge and
1991). of the goals of this is to describe the variation in
We
resource use within a community. specifically focus on gender; however, since
knowledge environment embedded and economic
of the in culture, social fac-
is
addressed.
tors also are
THE STUDY
DESCRIPTION OF
SITE
—
Northeastern Thailand, also called Isan, provides an excel-
Physical landscape.
knowledge environment and
observe variation in of the resource
lent setting to
and
use in the context of gender roles social relationships. Geographically, Isan is
by mountains and by and
from other regions characterized erratic rainfall
set off is
and
undulating
poor This gently sloping plateau of hills, terraces flood plains
soils.
zone and upland areas in the west and the south (Hafner
also includes a of hills
monsoon
moisture from the southwest airstreams. Thus, while
1990) that extract
make
more
contributing the biodiversity of the region, these hills also the area
to
low and poor
susceptible droughts. Today, the erratic rainfall, nutrient soils
to
make
and water combine
with poor moisture-retention capability, sparse surface to
However, some
the region difficult for wet-rice farming. of the earliest archaeo-
Asia with evidence of agriculture, pottery and bronze work are
logical sites in
(Higham Solheim The
Northeast 1982; 1968). semi-arid environ-
located in the
system and
ment subsistence other adaptations
greatly influenced the traditional
to the habitat.
—
Nature's impact on culture and personal identity has been
Cultural landscape,
Regional which involves a sense of belonging and pride, as
great in Isan. identity,
and out-group categorization, strong and tied to the landscape
well as in-group is
and wild resources, especially those that are involved in the cuisine of the region.
people the Northeast adjusted to variability in these habitat
Traditionally, the in
through the development of a combined subsistence system, in which they
factors
and
on glutinous other subsistence
complemented the staple rice
their reliance
SOMNASANG MORENO-BLACK
No.
2
and Vol. 20,
200
FIGURE Paddy and
l.-The landscape surrounding the village. fields (background)
sugar cane cultivation area (foreground).
and
crops with large inputs from wild food (Moreno-Black 1994; Phongphit
Hewison Somnasang
Pradipasen
1990; et al. 1986; et al. 1988; Tontisirin et al. 1986).
Isan people have a great deal of traditional knowledge concerning the environ-
ment, wild plant and animal resources. They are also knowledgeable about
predicting climatic patterns, cropping practices, green manuring, and energy ex-
(Rambo
traction 1991).
The and and
rich flora fauna in the Northeast provide a vast array of edible
useful plants and animals that are gathered for a wide variety of purposes, includ-
ing food, building material, crafts, medicinal use, and religious purposes. These
and knowledge
indigenous practices, the that they represent, have been acquired
many
and
over generations are deeply ingrained regional Thai culture
in
The by
(Phithakpol 1990). diet, characterized a staple core of glutinous
rice, fish,
and fish products, is supplemented by a wide variety of local wild and semi-do-
and
mesticated plants animals (Moreno-Black Moreno-Black
et 1996; 1994;
al.
Ngamsomsuke Ngarmsak
Somnasang
et al. 1987; 1987; Pradipasen et 1986; 1996;
al.
—
Somnasang
These
et aL1998, 1988). important items collected from forests, up-
land paddies, gardens, house swamps, and
fields, rice areas, canals, ponds, rivers,
—
dam
areas contribute valuable nutrients. Coupled with a variety of cooking
add
methods, they diversity to a potentially monotonous Northeastern food
diet.
has been one regional specialty that has begun gain popular and de-
to interest
mand
Bangkok
in (Van Esterik 1992). In Isan food was characterized and
fact,
romanticized popular media and
in folk has acquired both and
national interna-
tional recognition with the initial publication, gain in popularity, and w^de
novel
distribution of the Child the Northeast (Boonthawee
of 1976).
Winter 2000 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
201
FIGURE
2.-A scene from the village showing houses and dirt road.
and
Life-ways are changing rapidly in Isan villagers are being affected in terms
of economics, social relationships and culture. At the local level, a growing influ-
ence of the nationalized central Thai image, an increase in development projects,
and economy
a rising monetization of the are beginning to influence the regional
home
lifestyle in a variety of ways. Local resources, which used to dominate use,
FIGURE
3.-A gathering party.
SOMNASANG MORENO-BLACK
No.
and Vol. 20, 2
202
'^"^
^^J^
-^
^
.£«4IV^
FIGURE woman on way
4.-A her gather red
village to ants.
At same abundance
are being used as cash generators. the time the of these re-
due economic and programs do not
sources declining to national forestry that
is
emphasize The economy has expanded emphasize cash
the local species. local to
cropping, wage earning and both temporary and permanent out-migration of
adults.
METHOD AND
RESEARCH
DESIGN
—
The was
Selection research village. research village selected from twelve poten-
of
Khon
villages in the province of Kaen. All of the potential sample villages
tial
Khon
were chosen using secondary data obtained from Kaen and Plan-
the Policy
ning The Khon Kaen Governor's and
Division, extension
office district-level offices.
was
Additional information about the villages obtained through interviews with
government and
officials at provincial, district, sub-district government.
Rapid rural appraisals (RRA) (Chambers 1980; Lovelace, Sukesine and Sugin
1988) were conducted in the twelve villages in the province of Khon Kaen. The
headman was
in each village interviewed in order obtain information concern-
to
ing the general profile of the village, the local environment, occupations of the
residents, problems of concern within each village and the use of local wild food
two on
resources. Additionally, or three households each were
in village selected
economic
the basis of level (poor, middle, Semi-structured interviews
rich).
and
(Grandstaff Grandstaff 1987) were conducted with the individuals from each
households
of these to acquire information about wild food
utilization.
headman
Analysis of the interview and villager interview data enabled us to
select one village site for an in-depth study. The chosen village was selected be-
JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
Winter 2000
203
cause represented an average sized was characterized by high wild food
village,
it
use, and villagers obtained wild food from three main sources water
(forest, local
and paddy were
resources fields). Additionally, the villagers not heavily involved
Khon
in selling wild food at the market in the Kaen. Finally, the village was mod-
erately accessible year round, but was not located on a paved highway
all
—
In-depth village study. This part of the research involved intensive participant
and Our map-
observation in-depth interviewing in the study village (Figure
1).
showed
ping of the village that 105 of the 112 houses that were present were
occupied. Census information was obtained from of the 105 households. The
all
census interview included demographic information as well as questions concern-
ing household economics, agricultural practices, wild food use and transplanting
The environment surrounding the village was also surveyed in order to
activities.
and water The study sample house-
record the sites of forest, cropland, resources.
were by random sampling based on economic
holds
selected stratified stratification
developed conjunction with the headman. The 64 households in the sample
in
(3
60%
high income, 38 middle income and 23 low income) represent of the total
FIGURE
5.-Separating red ant
from
eggs red
ants.
MORENO-BLACK
No.
2
204 Vol. 20,
households in the village. Individuals from these households were interviewed
and
about wild food gathering practices, the types of wild food that are gathered,
how
on
the food items are used. Participant observation, focusing food procure-
was
ment, processing and preparation used amplify the interview
activities, to
The interviews were used obtain information about gathering practices;
data. to
knowledge of wild food habitats; the ways wild foods are used; and specific wild
food management practices such as transplanting and propagation techniques.
A
''Knowledge" and an "Attitude" were administered adults from
test test to
who
the study sample and children attended the one school in a nearby village
women
and men) and
Sixty-four adults 32 forty-one children
village. (32 (21 girls
and 20 boys) were interviewed using a set of laminated photographs of 40 wild
food items selected from information obtained during interviews and participant
observation (Table Appendix A). The forty food items were divided into four
1,
and
categories: plant (32 items), fish items), insect items) snail item).
(5 (2 (1
—
TABLE
Age and gender "Knowledge and //
1. distribution of Attitude Test
participants.
Age
Female Male
10-11
21 20
15-25
8 8
26-35
8 8
36-45
8
8
46-55+
8
8
Total 53 52
Mean -
age of school children years
11
Mean
age of the adult sample: Males - 37 years; Females = 36 years
was
Each adult asked to identify the item (identification These data were
test).
used odds and
in the ratio analysis the scoring system below was
described then
compute component
utilized to the score of the knowledge The knowledge
I
test.
was composed
and
test of several parts individuals were scored on: ability to iden-
tify an item (I score); culinary information, such as how to eat, prepare, and cook
food
the as well as its taste (C score); non-culinary uses (O
score); horticultural
transplanting, maintaining
or propagating the item
and know^led
item and
(Table
2)
items
For
the attitude individuals were
test also asked about toward
their attitude
item especially in terms of taste qualities and consumption The
1 preferences.
dren were given same
the set of laminated
pictures of the wild foods; however,
were
questions simpler and
shorter since they were only asked
to identify
and
item
express knowledge
their of and toward
1 attitude the item.
Winter 2000 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
205
TABLE
Wild
2.
CRITERIA NUMBER
OF POINTS
No
Knowledge
Incomplete Knowledge Knowledge
Item
Identification score)
(I 2
1
Knowledge
Culinary
(C
score)
2
1
Procurement Knowledge
(P Score)
2
1
Other Use Knowledge (O
score) 2
1
Knowledge
Horticultural (IP
Score)
2
1
No
* Knowledge = Interviewee lacks any knowledge or answers
incorrectly.
Incomplete knowledge = Interviewee has incomplete knowledge
either of the item.
Knowledge =
Interviewee demonstrates full knowledge in terms of all criteria.
AND
RESULTS DISCUSSION
and
In the Northeast, resources are recognized perceived as useful within the
context of the environmental and social reality of the region. Knowledge of
local
and commonly consumed
plants animals^ especially those species that are as food,
way
accumulates over generations and reflects the people learn from and about
The on
their environment. villagers relied heavily a variety of non-domesticated
A
and was paddy
plants animals, diversity of habitats utilized, including
fields,
upland swamps, and
ponds, streams, other
areas, forests, rivers, w^ater reservoirs.
Commonly
utilized items include leafy algae, green plants, mushrooms,
fruits,
and mammals.
amphibians, Wild
crustaceans, fish, birds, reptiles, insects foods
were also used as condiments and often contribute to the distinctive flavor of Isan
food. Wild food entered the household in a variety of ways: production through
1)
procurement through and
family agricultural gathering, fishing hunt-
activities;
2)
ing by household members; from relatives and neighbors, exchange wdth
gifts
2) 3)
and
other individuals in the village or nearby villages; 4) purchase. Consequently
many
household's food consumption and men,
individuals can contribute to a
women
and have some involvement with wild food beyond consum-
children
all
ing
it.
—
Shared and attitudes concerning wildfood use, ^The majority of people
traditions,
beliefs
in the village reported eating or using wild food at the present time or in the re-
cent past. The majority of villagers indicated they liked to eat wild food, often
preferring wild food cultivated food and food from the market. Only 3 people
to
(5%) reported they did not like wild food, while only 3 people felt that they like
much The
wild food as as cultivated food. villagers believe that wild food is nec-
essary and the most important food for everyday Analysis of the
that life.
is
it
males and females did not
in-depth interviews revealed that differ in their
atti-
women
men
and consume
and both preferred wild
tude concerning wild food to
food over cultivated food.
SOMNASANG
No.
206 Vol. 20, 2
—
TABLE =
3. Reasons for preferring wild food over cultivated food (n 64)
REASONS FOR PREFERRING WILD FOOD RESPONSES
Female Male Total
Taste Factor
34
19 15
Taste: delicious, taste better, etc.
Higher 7 13
nutritional value, less fat 6
Fresh, better than market food 6 6 12
Natural 5 5 10
36 33 69
Total
Procurement and
Ease of Safety
Less poisonous agents, fewer chemical,
harmful 17 17 34
less
own
Easy to obtain, can gather on their 9 7 16
Cleaner than market food 3 9
6
Total 32 27 59
Economics
No
need buy food, save money 15 14 29
to
29
Total 15 24
Maximum
=
Note: answers 3 per person
why
The
villagers gave a variety of reasons they preferred wild food over
cultivated food (Table The most frequent reasons were con-
related to qualities
3).
and and The
cerning: taste; ease safety; economics. concept of taste
1) 2) 3) is
obviously very important and included number important components.
a of
First,
villagers often mentioned the fact that wild food more delicious and tastes bet-
is
ter than cultivated food. They also thought wild food was fresher and tasted more
naturally sweet than market food. This partially because of the inherent quali-
is
consume
afterwards
more
nutrient value, especiallv vitamins
These which some
less fat. specific nutrition-related characteristics, individuals
now
wild most
are ascribing to food, are likely derived from information obtained
from government sponsored and
health nutrition education programs.
The second group
of reasons for preferring wild food revolved around the
and
concept of ease safety. Villagers preferred wild food because was easy
to
it
obtain or thev did not have spend time ener^v and
to or cultivating nahiral
it: it is
assume
would
cultivated food be contaminated with However,
or
fertilizers insecticides.
many
it is likely that of these items, especially those growing in paddy fields and
gardens, are contaminated with and
fertilizers pesticides. Wild food also con-
is
sidered be clean because comes from mixed
to the natural environment. not
it
It is
become
with food can
that dirty at the market in town.
The
last set of reasons related economics. The wild
is to villagers considered
food to be good because they did not have pay money were
to for thus they able
it,
money
by Many
to save eating wild food. villagers that poor people needed to
felt