Karst Environments: Karren Formation in High Mountains

232 Pages·2010·14.236 MB·English

by  Márton Veress (auth.)

Karst Environments
Márton Veress
Karst Environments
Karren Formation in High Mountains
Márton Veress
Department of Physical Geography
University of West Hungary
Szombathely
Hungary
[email protected]
The book is based on the monograph “A Magashegységi Karrosodás” which was originally
published in the Hungarian language by the University of West Hungary in 2007.
ISBN 978-90-481-3549-3 e-ISBN 978-90-481-3550-9
DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-3550-9
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York
Library of Congress Control Number: 2009943055
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
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Cover Images: (background) the Alps, photo © 2009 JupiterImages Corporation. Right and left photos
are from this book, chapters 4 and 6 respectively.
Printed on acid-free paper
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Preface
The author of this book has been working in different types of karren landscapes
for more than fifteen years. The book summarizes the scientific results of system-
atic observations made during field trips as well as the interpretation of the data
collected in the sample localities of the high mountain karren area, and specifically
in the European Alps, using modern analytical methods. This book is written for
graduate students and university professors of a variety of disciplines such as
Physical Geography, Karst Geomorphology, Carbonate Mineralogy, Geology,
Environmental Engineering, Forestry, and Soil Science.
The introductory chapter of this book underlines the importance of high moun-
tain karren formation, in addition to charting the history of karren research at high
altitude, and describes the major characteristics of high mountain karstification.
Chapter 2 provides information regarding the research sites and methods. In
Chapter 3, the general characteristics of the karren formation in different vegetation
zones are discussed. In Chapter 4, the specific environment, morphology, formation
and the development of the different high mountain karren forms are covered.
Chapter 5 provides a discussion of those karren assemblages of the karst of the high
mountains which were discovered by the author and analyzes the type of denuda-
tion observed on karren assemblages. Chapter 6 describes the karren belts of the
slopes and the karren forms, and presents the karren formation development hap-
pening at the embryonic, young, and mature stage of karren formation. The final
chapter on coalescing types and their origin offers the reader a detailed description
of karren cells and their characteristic features, and analyzes the relationship
between different karren formations.
Márton Veress
Szombathely, Hungary
v
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful for the tremendous help given to this book by his wife
Katalin and colleagues Dénes Lóczy, Arnold Gucsik, Éva Györe, Roland Schläffer,
Gyula Széles, Gábor Szunyog, Gábor Tóth, Zoltán Zentai, Timea Pfingstl, Kálmán
Péntek, Tamás Nacsa, István Czöpek, György Deák.
vii
Contents
1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 1
1.1 The Importance of High Mountain Karren ........................................ 1
1.2 The History of Research on High Mountain Karren .......................... 3
1.2.1 Overview ................................................................................ 3
1.2.2 Development of Terminology ................................................ 4
1.2.3 Modern Classifications .......................................................... 5
1.3 Major Characteristics of High Mountain Karstification .................... 6
2 Research Sites and Methods..................................................................... 11
2.1 Research Sites .................................................................................... 11
2.2 Methods .............................................................................................. 14
2.2.1 Mapping ................................................................................. 14
2.2.2 Profiling ................................................................................. 15
2.2.3 The Role of Cracks in the Development
of Karren Forms ..................................................................... 18
2.2.4 Dating Karren Forms ............................................................. 18
2.2.5 Measuring Meanderkarren ..................................................... 19
3 Age and Characteristics of High Mountain Karren Formation ........... 25
3.1 Age of Karren and the Rate of Their Development ........................... 25
3.2 General Characteristics of High Mountain Karren Formation........... 27
3.2.1 Diversity of Forms ................................................................. 27
3.2.2 Karren Zonation ..................................................................... 29
3.2.3 Magnitude, Frequency and Rate of Karren Formation .......... 30
3.2.4 The Role of Slope Direction and Jointing Direction
on Karren Formation .............................................................. 34
4 Karren Features ........................................................................................ 37
4.1 Karren Features of Flowing Water Origin ......................................... 37
4.1.1 Features of Sheet Water Origin .............................................. 37
4.1.2 Forms Created by a Rivulet ................................................... 56
4.2 Karren Forms Originated by Seepage................................................ 131
4.2.1 Grikekarren (Kluftkarren, Cleftkarren) .................................. 131
ix
x Contents
4.2.2 Kamenitzas ............................................................................. 134
4.2.3 Pitkarren ................................................................................. 140
4.2.4 Schichtfugenkarren (Bedding Grikes) ................................... 142
4.2.5 Napfkarren ............................................................................. 144
4.3 Karren Developed Due to Rain Drops ............................................... 144
4.3.1 Rainpits .................................................................................. 144
4.4 Karren Forms of Complex Development ........................................... 145
4.4.1 Karren Cavities ...................................................................... 145
4.4.2 Spitzkarren (Pinnacle Karren, Solution Spikes) .................... 149
4.4.3 Karren Mounds ...................................................................... 150
4.4.4 Heads of Bed Karren .............................................................. 152
4.4.5 Clints, Clasts, Karrennasen .................................................... 152
4.5 Karren Features Development Due to Organic Acids ....................... 152
4.5.1 Root Karren ............................................................................ 152
5 Karren Assemblages ................................................................................. 153
5.1 Types of Karren Assemblages ............................................................ 156
5.2 Surface Development on the Area of the Assemblages ..................... 159
5.3 Surface Development of Glacier Valleys
Due to Karren Formation ................................................................... 160
6 Local Karren Belts .................................................................................... 163
6.1 Karren Belts on a Slope ..................................................................... 163
6.2 Zonality (Belts) Developed on Karren Forms .................................... 168
6.3 Development of the Slope .................................................................. 170
7 Coalescing of Karren Forms .................................................................... 179
7.1 The Forms of Coalescing ................................................................... 182
7.1.1 Forms Developing When They Are Connected
to Each Other ......................................................................... 182
7.1.2 The Forms of Union ............................................................... 183
7.2 Types and Causes of the Form Connection ........................................ 185
7.2.1 Connections Due to Primary Causes ...................................... 185
7.2.2 Forms Connecting into Each Other
Due to Secondary Causes ....................................................... 199
7.3 United Karren Forms Types ............................................................... 205
7.3.1 The Union of Similar Karren Forms ...................................... 205
7.3.2 The Union of Different Karren Forms ................................... 208
7.4 Karren Cells ....................................................................................... 209
7.5 Relationship System Between the Levels of Karren
Formation in High Mountain ............................................................. 213
References ....................................................................................................... 215
Index ................................................................................................................. 223
Chapter 1
Introduction
Abstract In this chapter, we underline the importance of high mountain karren

formation. For example, the study of the karren process allows us to understand
the solution processes that are key to the development of a particular karst area.
Furthermore, the karren process is a clear indicator of changing environmental con-
ditions and can be used to establish the value of soil denudation. We also provide an
overview of the history of karren research in this chapter. The major stages of this
process are the following: the karren was recognized in the late nineteenth century;
the terminology of the karren forms has been created in the early and the middle part
of the twentieth century; the genetic systematization of the karren forms in the later
twentieth century. Moreover, we discuss the main characteristics of the high moun-
tain karstification, the associated karst forms and their belt pattern formation.
Keywords Karren • Terminology • Classification • High Mountain karstification •

Glacial valley • Altitudinal zones
1.1 The Importance of High Mountain Karren
Karren are widespread landscape-forming factors in high mountain environments.
According to estimates, they occur in half of the mountains of the Alpine system.
For instance, they occupy the entire surface of quite a few valley floors – the
appearance of karren features, however, is not continuous (e.g. in Totes Gebirge and
in Julian Alps). The investigation of karren is important from both conceptual and
practical aspects. Some considerationsthat support this statement are as follows:
• The karren provide important data on the karstification process of a mountain
range.
• Karren phenomena are small in size. However, there are analogies with some
larger-scale phenomena of the Earth’s surface. Consequently, we can study the
phenomena and processes of the Earth on karren in certain cases. Karren are the
‘terrain models’ of the Earth processes reduced in scale. Furthermore, karren
M. Veress, Karst Environments: Karren Formation in High Mountains, 1
DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-3550-9_1, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
2 1 Introduction
processes are rapid. Therefore, they may assist us to understand larger-scale
geomorphic processes, such as surface denudation and meander formation.
• Solution processes are often observed and measured directly on karren surfaces.
Therefore, the characteristics of these processes can be studied in detail.
The process how water dissolves rocks and erodes the surface can be described,
and the experience gathered during the study of karren solution may be used to
understand other karstic processes.
• Recognizing the characteristics of karren can contribute to the recognization of
paleo karren formation. With this knowledge, we can understand the former
karren environment and karst environment better. We can outline the whole
karren formation at an area in more detail.
• Karren are sensitive indicators of environmental change. A conclusion for the
changing environment can be drawn from the transformation and destruction of
karren features. For instance, karren formation begins on surfaces, which had
been exposed from below ice cover. By knowing the age of the karren features,
we can reconstruct the process of glacier retreat and, indirectly, climatic changes.
Certain karren forms develop exclusively under soil. If they occur on bare sur-
faces, they provide evidence for the denudation of a former soil cover. Karren
features of bare surfaces may be buried under soil. This fact proves that the soil
and timber line moved to a higher altitude. This is also an evidence of climate
change. The Pinus mugo belt may also shift to a higher elevation. This process
can be detected because karren formation is more intense in the surroundings of
the Pinus mugo patch than on bare slopes (see below).
Kamenitzas are traps of pollution. Therefore, atmospheric pollution may be
presentin their soil fill. For example, high radioactive pollution was detected in a
few kamenitzas of Totes Gebirge (Hidasi et al. 1995). The radioactive isotopes of
the soils in kamenitzas have a small half-life. Therefore, this kind of pollution must
have originated from the Chernobyl accident.
• Instead of slow percolation, the water flows into the karst through some karren
features. Therefore, surface pollution spreads inside the karst by the medium of
karst water more rapidly over karst areas with karren features than over surfaces
without them.
• Certain karren features (such as kamenitzas) are the sites where soil formation
begins. At the same time, these features are the habitats of various living
organisms.
• Deforestation may cause soil erosion. The density and shape of karren features
control the type and characteristics of denudation. If there are linear karren
features of downslope alignment under the soil, soil erosion may be more intensive
after deforestation than if there are forms that are perpendicular to the dip direc-
tion of the slope or circular forms (such as kamenitzas) on the slope. The higher
the density of downslope linear karren, the more intensive the soil erosion. The
higher the density of linear karren features perpendicular to the slope, the lower
the rate of soil erosion. Certain karren forms (such as kamenitzas and grikes
perpendicular to slope) are soil traps. Soil removed from the environs accumu-