Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2006, Vol. 91-05 PDF
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Volume 91 November 2006 Number 5 Published monthly ISSN 0022-3514 by the American Psychological Association Journal of Personality and Social Psychology ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION Charles M. Judd, Editor Dacher Keltner, Associate Editor Anne Maass, Associate Editor Bernd Wittenbrink, Associate Editor Vincent Yzerbyt, Associate Editor INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS AND GROUP PROCESSES John F. Dovidio, Editor Daphne Blunt Bugental, Associate Editor Jacques-Philippe Leyens, Associate Editor Antony Manstead, Associate Editor Cynthia L. Pickett, Associate Editor Jeffry A. Simpson, Associate Editor Scott Tindale, Associate Editor Jacquie D. Vorauer, Associate Editor PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Charles S. Carver, Editor Tim Kasser, Associate Editor Mario Mikulincer, Associate Editor Eva M. Pomerantz, Associate Editor Richard W. Robins, Associate Editor Gerard Saucier, Associate Editor www.apa.org/journals/psp Thomas A. Widiger, Associate Editor The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology publishes original journals will be forwarded only if subscribers notify the local post office papers in all areas of personality and social psychology. It empha- in writing that they will guarantee periodicals forwarding postage. sizes empirical reports but may include specialized theoretical, methodological, and review papers. The journal is divided into three Electronic access: APA members who subscribe to this journal have independently edited sections: automatic access to a 3-year file of the journal in the PsycARTICLES姞 full-text database. See http://members.apa.org/access. f ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION addresses those domains of social behavior in which cognition plays a major role, including the interface Reprints: Authors may order reprints of their articles from the of cognition with overt behavior, affect, and motivation. 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Ferreira, Leonel Garcia-Marques, Steven J. Sherman, and Jeffrey W. Sherman 814 Stereotypes: Static Abstractions or Dynamic Knowledge Structures? Leonel Garcia-Marques, A. Sofia C. Santos, and Diane M. Mackie 832 Terror Management and Attributions of Blame to Innocent Victims: Reconciling Compassionate and Defensive Responses Gilad Hirschberger 845 Transcending the “Here”: The Effect of Spatial Distance on Social Judgment Marlone D. Henderson, Kentaro Fujita, Yaacov Trope, and Nira Liberman Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes 857 The Costs and Benefits of Undoing Egocentric Responsibility Assessments in Groups Eugene M. Caruso, Nicholas Epley, and Max H. Bazerman 872 When Perspective Taking Increases Taking: Reactive Egoism in Social Interaction Nicholas Epley, Eugene M. Caruso, and Max H. Bazerman 890 Cultural Affordances and Emotional Experience: Socially Engaging and Disengaging Emotions in Japan and the United States Shinobu Kitayama, Batja Mesquita, and Mayumi Karasawa 904 Will You Be There for Me When Things Go Right? Supportive Responses to Positive Event Disclosures Shelly L. Gable, Gian C. Gonzaga, and Amy Strachman 918 When Inclusion Costs and Ostracism Pays, Ostracism Still Hurts Ilja van Beest and Kipling D. Williams 929 When Sex Is More Than Just Sex: Attachment Orientations, Sexual Experience, and Relationship Quality Gurit E. Birnbaum, Harry T. Reis, Mario Mikulincer, Omri Gillath, and Ayala Orpaz Personality Processes and Individual Differences 944 Social Role and Birth Cohort Influences on Gender-Linked Personality Traits in Women: A 20-Year Longitudinal Analysis Stephanie Kasen, Henian Chen, Joel Sneed, Thomas Crawford, and Patricia Cohen (contents continue) 959 Personality Development in Emerging Adulthood: Integrating Evidence From Self-Ratings and Spouse Ratings David Watson and John Humrichouse 975 Nostalgia: Content, Triggers, Functions Tim Wildschut, Constantine Sedikides, Jamie Arndt, and Clay Routledge Other 993 Call for Nominations 871 New Editors Appointed, 2008–2013 958 Subscription Order Form ii ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION CHARLES M. JUDD, Editor University of Colorado at Boulder ASSOCIATE EDITORS ALICE H. EAGLY NIRA LIBERMAN LINDA SKITKA Northwestern University Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel University of Illinois at Chicago DACHER KELTNER University of California, Berkeley NICHOLAS EPLEY DIANE M. MACKIE JOHN SKOWRONSKI University of Chicago University of California, Santa Barbara Northern Illinois University ANNE MAASS Universita` di Padova, Padova, Italy RUSSELL H. FAZIO NEIL MACRAE ELIOT R. SMITH Ohio State University Dartmouth College Indiana University Bloomington BERND WITTENBRINK University of Chicago LISA FELDMAN BARRETT TONY MANSTEAD DIEDERIK STAPEL Boston College Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales University of Groningen, Groningen, VINCENT YZERBYT Catholic University of Louvain, SUSAN T. FISKE THOMAS MUSSWEILER the Netherlands Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium Princeton University Universita¨ t Ko¨ ln, Cologne, Germany FRITZ STRACK CONSULTING EDITORS BARBARA L. FREDRICKSON JAMES M. OLSON Universita¨ t Wu¨ rzburg, Wu¨ rzburg, University of Michigan University of Western Ontario, Germany ICEK AJZEN London, Ontario, Canada University of Massachusetts WENDI GARDNER ABRAHAM TESSER Northwestern University BERNADETTE M. 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BREWER TIFFANY ITO MARK SCHALLER Ohio State University University of Colorado at Boulder University of British Columbia, DIRK WENTURA JOHN T. CACIOPPO Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Saarland University, Saarbru¨ cken, YOSHIHISA KASHIMA University of Chicago University of Melbourne, Victoria, TONI SCHMADER Germany OLIVIER CORNEILLE Australia University of Arizona DANIEL WIGBOLDUS Catholic University of Louvain, KARLE CHRISTOPHE KLAUER NORBERT SCHWARZ Radboud University Nijmegen, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium Albrecht-Ludwigs-Universita¨ t University of Michigan Nijmegen, the Netherlands PATRICIA DEVINE Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany GU¨ N R. SEMIN TIMOTHY D. WILSON University of Wisconsin—Madison ARIE W. KRUGLANSKI Free University, Amsterdam, the University of Virginia University of Maryland Netherlands AP DIJKSTERHUIS PIOTR WINKIELMEN University of Amsterdam, ALAN LAMBERT JEFFREY W. 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VALLERAND University of Illinois at Chicago Pennsylvania State University Ontario, Canada Universite´ du Que´ bec a` Montre´ al ANTONIO L. FREITAS RALPH L. PIEDMONT Montreal, Quebec, Canada OZLEM AYDUK State University of New York at Loyola College in Maryland KATHLEEN D. VOHS University of California, Berkeley Stony Brook E. ASHBY PLANT University of Minnesota ROY F. BAUMEISTER DAVID C. FUNDER Florida State University DAVID WATSON Florida State University University of California, Riverside BRENT ROBERTS University of Iowa VERO´ NICA BENET-MARTI´NEZ STEVEN W. GANGESTAD University of Illinois at BARBARA WOIKE University of California, Riverside University of New Mexico Urbana–Champaign Columbia University APRIL L. BLESKE-RECHEK CAROL L. GOHM MICHAEL D. ROBINSON REX A. WRIGHT University of Wisconsin—Eau Claire University of Mississippi North Dakota State University University of Alabama at Birmingham ASSISTANT TO THE EDITOR—BARBARA ADEWUSI ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION Automatic and Controlled Components of Judgment and Decision Making Mario B. Ferreira and Leonel Garcia-Marques Steven J. Sherman University of Lisbon Indiana University Jeffrey W. Sherman University of California, Davis The categorization of inductive reasoning into largely automatic processes (heuristic reasoning) and controlled analytical processes (rule-based reasoning) put forward by dual-process approaches of judgment under uncertainty (e.g., K. E. Stanovich & R. F. West, 2000) has been primarily a matter of assumption with a scarcity of direct empirical findings supporting it. The present authors use the process dissociation procedure (L. L. Jacoby, 1991) to provide convergent evidence validating a dual-process perspective to judgment under uncertainty based on the independent contributions of heuristic and rule-based reasoning. Process dissociations based on experimental manipulation of variables were derived from the most relevant theoretical properties typically used to contrast the two forms of reasoning. These include processing goals (Experiment 1), cognitive resources (Experiment 2), priming (Experiment 3), and formal training (Experiment 4); the results consistently support the author’s perspective. They conclude that judgment under uncertainty is neither an automatic nor a controlled process but that it reflects both processes, with each making independent contributions. Keywords: dual-process approach, heuristic reasoning, rule-based reasoning, process dissociation Think for a moment about all of the relevant factors involved in For example, it is quite trivial to calculate that the likelihood of daily judgments such as the likelihood of a current relationship picking the one red ball in an urn out of 10 balls is 10% and that leading to marriage or a sports team winning a game. This mental the likelihood of picking a red ball from another urn when there are experience is usually enough to make us aware of the simple fact 8 red balls out of 100 is only 8%. Yet, even knowing this, when we that the world is too complex to predict accurately. Perhaps we can are asked from which urn we would prefer to sample and try to get rely on resource-consuming decision rules based on formal theo- a red ball and win $100, many of us have a compelling desire to ries of probability, but even those may be unsatisfactory and are choose the urn with 100 balls (and in fact, do make such a choice not always consensual. Of course, they do often work and lead to if asked to use their gut feelings), despite the fact that we “know” accurate judgments. Alternatively, instead of the deliberate use of this is an irrational choice (Denes-Raj & Epstein, 1994). Similarly, algorithms, sometimes a judgment or prediction seems to come to even though we know rationally that the two lines in the Mu¨ller- us, rather spontaneously and quickly, and a feeling of relative Lyer illusion are the same length, we cannot escape the feeling, certainty (or uncertainty) will “pop-out.” Even when basing judg- and the perception, that they are different. Some judgments seem ments on such a simple process, we sometimes make probability to come to us (and stay with us) independently of any logical judgments that are relatively well calibrated. In addition, the two considerations. kinds of judgment processes often occur together. When they From our perspective, the greatest contribution of more than 30 suggest the same answer, there is no problem or conflict. However, years of research concerning the use of heuristics and biases is not a good deal of tension and anxiety may come about when delib- so much the realization that intuitive judgments are often governed erate rule-based reasoning and intuitive heuristics produce contra- by heuristics that do not follow probability rules but it is the dictory outputs within our own heads. revelation of a gap, within our own heads, between “natural assessments” such as availability or representativeness and the deliberate application of a justifiable set of inductive rules. Mario B. Ferreira and Leonel Garcia-Marques, Department of Psychol- In recent years, dual-process approaches of judgment under ogy and Education, University of Lisbon; Steven J. Sherman, Department uncertainty (e.g., Chaiken & Trope, 1999; Kahneman & Frederick, of Psychology, Indiana University; Jeffrey W. Sherman, Department of 2002; Kirkpatrick & Epstein, 1992; Sloman, 1996; Sloman & Rips, Psychology, University of California, Davis. 1998; Stanovich & West, 2000) have categorized the cognitive Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Mario B. Ferreira, University of Lisbon, Department of Psychology and Ed- processes underlying inductive reasoning into two basic forms of ucation, Alameda de Universidade, 1649-013 Lisbon, Portugal. E-mail: reasoning: largely automatic associative processes (here referred to 798 FERREIRA, GARCIA-MARQUES, SHERMAN, AND SHERMAN 1 (rule-based reasoning [RB]). Although this characterization has underlying heuristic principles and their consequences (Kahneman & led to several property lists contrasting the two reasoning modes Tversky, 1972, 1973; Tversky & Kahneman, 1971, 1973, 1974). (Sloman, 1996; Smith & DeCoster, 1999; Stanovich & West, However, researchers readily note that, although heuristics play a 2000), such theoretical descriptions have been primarily a matter major role in judgment, reasoning based on the purposeful application of assumption with a scarcity of direct empirical findings support- of some statistical concepts is also a part of people’s judgmental ing it. In this article, we report theoretically based process disso- repertoire (e.g., Ginossar & Trope, 1987; Jepson, Krantz, & Nisbett, ciations between the two forms of reasoning, obtained by experi- 1983; Kruglanski, Friedland, & Farkash, 1984; Nisbett, Krantz, Jep- mentally manipulating variables derived from the most relevant son, & Kunda, 1983). In such research, RB is typically gauged in theoretical properties typically used to contrast the two forms of terms of correct responses (defined by applicable probability or sta- reasoning. As Kahneman (2003) has noted: “There is considerable tistical rules) or calibrated responses (defined by ecological consid- agreement on the characteristics that distinguish the two types of erations or objective criteria) to inferential problems, whereas asso- cognitive processes” (p. 698). Answering the what, how, and when ciative inferential processes (H) are usually estimated by incorrect or of H and RB seems a sensible starting point to describe the general badly calibrated responses to the same kinds of inferential tasks. view that has motivated most dual-model research in reasoning This approach contrasts with our own both conceptually and meth- and decision making. In other words, what are these two forms of odologically. At the conceptual level, the above approach implies a reasoning? How do they work? When do they become active? zero-sum or hydraulic relation between the RB and the H processes. The what: H refers to inferences based on simplifying principles As correct responses increase, incorrect responses necessarily de- such as similarity and contiguity, whereas RB refers to symboli- crease. Our dual-process approach conceives of the two processing cally represented inferential rules structured by logic. modes as contributing independently to the judgment. At the meth- The how: H operates intuitively in the sense that once triggered odological level, the above approach assumes that inferential prob- it gives rise to an autonomous process without further control until lems or tasks are pure measures of underlying processes (rule-based an end response pops out into consciousness. RB’s operation and associative processes, respectively). However, such a process- involves the deliberate application of rules that are put to work pure assumption may be troublesome to maintain because tasks differ strategically according to the person’s goals. in a number of ways beyond the extent to which they tap automatic The when: H’s activation depends only on appropriate trigger- (heuristic) versus controlled (rule-based) processes. In the same vein, ing cues (e.g., similarity matching involved in the representative- different levels of a manipulated variable may differ in ways other ness heuristic), whereas RB’s activation depends on recognizing than simply mapping onto RB and H. Several lines of research have the applicability of an abstract rule (based on the verification of led to the conclusion that there is often not a sharp dissociation formal conditions) as well as on the availability of cognitive between analytic and heuristic reasoning (Ajzen, 1977; Bar-Hillel, resources and motivation. 1979, 1980; Tversky & Kahneman, 1974, 1982). The more general point is that no task is “process pure.” An The Dual Nature of Judgment Under Uncertainty inferential task that depends entirely on heuristic processes and not A successful account of judgment under uncertainty must be at all on rule-based processes is technically unattainable. An in- capable of retaining the explanatory power of the past research on ferential task that depends entirely on rule-based processes and not simplified heuristics and biases (for reviews see Kahneman, at all on heuristic processes is highly unlikely. Rather, most, if not Slovic, & Tversky, 1982; Sherman & Corty, 1984), but it must also all, judgments under uncertainty are influenced by simultaneously be able to delineate the conditions underlying inductive judgment occurring heuristic and rule-based processes. The process-pure based on deliberate RB (e.g., Fong, Krantz, & Nisbett, 1986). problem is present, to a smaller or greater extent, in research Thus, we argue that human inductive reasoning has a dual nature: involving other variables that are known to affect respondents’ one aspect operates by heuristic principles such as similarity and performance on inferential tasks such as time available for delib- contiguity, and the other operates by the use of deliberate analytic eration (Finucane, Alhakami, Slovic, & Johnson, 2000), intelli- rules (Sloman, 1996; Smith & DeCoster, 1999). Such an approach gence (Stanovich & West, 1998, 2002), mood (Bless & Schwarz, describes several existing dual-process models of judgment under 1999), opportunities to apply intuitive representations of statistical uncertainty (Epstein, 1994; Griffin, Gonzalez, & Varey, 2001; rules (Ginossar & Trope, 1987), presentation format (Gigerenzer, Kahneman & Frederick, 2002; Stanovich & West, 1999, 2000). 1991; Tversky & Kahneman, 1983), and perceptual salience of However, none of these models has attempted to derive, in the area randomness (Ferreira & Garcia-Marques, 2003). of reasoning under uncertainty, independent estimates of these two The process-pure problem is not specific to the study of infer- processes and to observe independent effects of manipulated vari- ential processes, but it emerges whenever processes are to be ables on the two processes. Such evidence would clearly demon- measured in terms of particular experimental tasks (Hollender, strate the dual-process nature of judgments under uncertainty. 1986; Jacoby, 1991). As a consequence, selective influences of The successful modeling of dual-process approaches typically involves two steps. First, one must establish a one-to-one relation 1 We consider heuristic reasoning to be based on natural associative between processing modes and participants’ responses to inferen- assessments such as similarity matching (representativeness) and memory tial tasks. That is, the adoption of the H process must be associated fluency (availability). We also recognize that some heuristics involve with a particular response, and the adoption of the RB process meta-cognitive activity (e.g., the ease-of-retrieval heuristic) that reflect must be associated with a particular response. Second, one must judgments about the validity of activated associations rather than associa- demonstrate and understand how empirical variables selectively tive processes per se. Both involve automatic rather than reasoned, analytic affect the two processes. processes. In our studies, the heuristics do involve associative processes Research on judgment under uncertainty has traditionally used (see our subsequent definitions of H and RB), and we thus use the term errors and biases in answers to inferential problems to characterize the associative in describing heuristic reasoning.
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