ebook img

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2006, Vol. 91-05 PDF

216 Pages·2016·6.67 MB·English
by  JPSP
Save to my drive
Quick download
Download
Most books are stored in the elastic cloud where traffic is expensive. For this reason, we have a limit on daily download.

Preview Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2006, Vol. 91-05

Volume 91 November 2006 Number 5 Published monthly ISSN 0022-3514 by the American Psychological Association Journal of Personality and Social Psychology ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION Charles M. Judd, Editor Dacher Keltner, Associate Editor Anne Maass, Associate Editor Bernd Wittenbrink, Associate Editor Vincent Yzerbyt, Associate Editor INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS AND GROUP PROCESSES John F. Dovidio, Editor Daphne Blunt Bugental, Associate Editor Jacques-Philippe Leyens, Associate Editor Antony Manstead, Associate Editor Cynthia L. Pickett, Associate Editor Jeffry A. Simpson, Associate Editor Scott Tindale, Associate Editor Jacquie D. Vorauer, Associate Editor PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Charles S. Carver, Editor Tim Kasser, Associate Editor Mario Mikulincer, Associate Editor Eva M. Pomerantz, Associate Editor Richard W. Robins, Associate Editor Gerard Saucier, Associate Editor www.apa.org/journals/psp Thomas A. Widiger, Associate Editor The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology publishes original journals will be forwarded only if subscribers notify the local post office papers in all areas of personality and social psychology. It empha- in writing that they will guarantee periodicals forwarding postage. sizes empirical reports but may include specialized theoretical, methodological, and review papers. The journal is divided into three Electronic access: APA members who subscribe to this journal have independently edited sections: automatic access to a 3-year file of the journal in the PsycARTICLES姞 full-text database. See http://members.apa.org/access. f ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION addresses those domains of social behavior in which cognition plays a major role, including the interface Reprints: Authors may order reprints of their articles from the of cognition with overt behavior, affect, and motivation. Among topics printer when they receive proofs. covered are the formation, change, and utilization of attitudes, attribu- tions, and stereotypes, person memory, self-regulation, and the origins Single Issues, Back Issues, and Back Volumes: For information and consequences of moods and emotions insofar as these interact regarding back issues or back volumes write to Order Department, with cognition. Of interest also is the influence of cognition and its American Psychological Association, 750 First Street, NE, Washing- various interfaces on significant social phenomena such as persuasion, ton, DC 20002-4242. communication, prejudice, social development, and cultural trends. Microform Editions: For information regarding microform editions, f INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS ANDGROUP PROCESSES focuses onpsycho- write to University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI 48106. logical and structural features of interaction in dyads and groups. Appropriate to this section are papers on the nature and dynamics of Copyright and Permission: Those who wish to reuse APA- interactions and social relationships, including interpersonal attraction, copyrighted material in a non-APA publication must secure from APA communication, emotion, and relationship development, and on group and the author of reproduced material written permission to reproduce and organizational processes such as social influence, group decision a journal article in full or journal text of more than 500 words. APA making and task performance, intergroup relations, and aggression, normally grants permission contingent upon like permission of the prosocial behavior and other types of social behavior. author, inclusion of the APA copyright notice on the first page of f PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES publishes re- reproducedmaterial, and payment of a fee of $20 per page. Permission search on all aspects of personality psychology. It includes studies of fromAPA and fees are waived for thosewhowish to reproduce a single individual differences and basic processes in behavior, emotions, cop- table or figure from a journal for use in a print product, provided the ing, health, motivation, and other phenomena that reflect personality. author’s permission is obtained and full credit is given to APA as Articles in areas such as personality structure, personality develop- copyright holder and to the author through a complete citation. (Re- ment, and personality assessment are also appropriate to this section questers requiring written permission for commercial use of a single of the journal, as are studies of the interplay of culture and personality table or figure will be assessed a $25 service fee.) Permission and fees and manifestations of personality in everyday behavior. are waived for authors who wish to reproduce their own material for personal use; fees only are waived for authors who wish to use more Manuscripts: Submit manuscripts to the appropriate section editor than a single table or figure of their own material commercially (but for according to the above definitions and according to the Instructions use in edited books, fees are waived for the author only if serving as the to Authors. Section editors reserve the right to redirect papers among book editor). Permission and fees are waived for the photocopying of themselves as appropriate unless an author specifically requests oth- isolated journal articles for nonprofit classroomor library reserve use by erwise. Rejection by one section editor is considered rejection by all; instructors and educational institutions. A permission fee may be therefore a manuscript rejected by one section editor should not be charged to the requester if students are charged for the material, submitted to another. The opinions and statements published are the multiple articles are copied, or large-scale copying is involved (e.g., for responsibility of the authors, and such opinions and statements do not course packs). Access services may use unedited abstracts without necessarily represent the policies of APA or the views of the editors. the permission of APA or the author. Libraries are permitted to photo- Section editors’ addresses appear below: copy beyond the limits of U.S. copyright law: (1) post-1977 articles, provided the per-copy fee in the code for this journal (0022-3514/06/ $12.00) is paid through the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rose- ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION wood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923; (2) pre-1978 articles, provided that Charles M. Judd, Editor the per-copy fee stated in the Publishers’ Fee List is paid through the c/o Laurie Hawkins Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA Department of Psychology 01923. Address requests for reprint permission to the Permissions University of Colorado UCB 345 Office, American Psychological Association, 750 First Street, NE, Boulder, CO 80309 Washington, DC 20002-4242. APA Journal Staff: Susan J. A. Harris, Senior Director, Journals Pro- INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS AND GROUP gram; Skip Maier, Director, Journal Services; Paige W. Jackson, PROCESSES Director, Editorial Services; Becky Shaw, Account Manager; Jodi Ash- John F. Dovidio, Editor craft, Advertising Sales Manager. Department of Psychology University of Connecticut 406 Babbidge Road Storrs, CT 06269-1020 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (ISSN 0022-3514) is published monthly in two volumes per year by the American PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL Psychological Association, 750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC DIFFERENCES 20002-4242. Subscriptions are available on a calendar year basis only (January through December). The 2007 rates follow: Non- Charles S. Carver, Editor member Individual: $442 Domestic, $488 Foreign, $515 Air Mail. ATTN: JPSP: PPID Department of Psychology Institutional: $1,349 Domestic, $1,443 Foreign, $1,470 Air Mail. University of Miami APA Member: $208. Write to Subscriptions Department, American P.O. Box 248185 Psychological Association, 750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC Coral Gables, FL 33124-0751 20002-4242. Printed in the U.S.A. Periodicals postage paid at Change of Address: Send change of address notice and a recent Washington, DC, and at additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: mailing label to the attention of the Subscriptions Department, American Send address changes to Journal of Personality and Social Psy- Psychological Association, 30 days prior to the actual change of address. chology, 750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC 20002-4242. APA will not replace undelivered copies resulting from address changes; The paper in this journal meets or exceeds EPA guidelines for recycled paper. Since 1986, this journal has been printed on acid-free paper. NEW RELEASES from the American Psychological Association Psychological Treatment Why Aren’t More of Obsessive-Compulsive Women in Science? Disorder Top Gender Researchers Sensation Seeking Fundamentals and Beyond Debate the Evidence and Risky Behavior Edited by Martin M. Antony, Edited by Stephen J. Ceci Marvin Zuckerman Christine Purdon, and and Wendy M. Williams 2007. 326 pages. Hardcover. Laura J. Summerfeldt 2007. 248 pages. Hardcover. List: $59.95 2007. 328 pages. Hardcover. List: $59.95 APA Member/Affiliate: $49.95 List: $59.95 APA Member/Affiliate: $49.95 ISBN 1-59147-738-7 APA Member/Affiliate: $49.95 ISBN 1-59147-485-X ISBN-13: 978-1-59147-738-9 ISBN 1-59147-484-1 ISBN-13: 978-1-59147-485-2 Item # 4317124 ISBN-13: 978-1-59147-484-5 Item # 4316085 Item # 4317123 Career Paths in Psychology Psychology and the Where Your Degree Termination in Department Can Take You AP JAon rshPotynhscc oyeShnc.s yhoOs oetSghds.r o eJyaodnrnynacdimepc ,Ozy iWucu kitMlc,l oioamdmee lEs o. fP iper, oRA dfeH svVioeseacttoraecrcirhcya,a nPl sAra nAcatflifycasei,sr a sonfd T raining, SLEA2i0Pdse0Ati:c7tM$.eo42edn4m9 b3.db9yep5 E raR/gAdoefsifibt.leiPaoratetnp :eJ$.r b2Sa4tc.e9kr5.nberg and Robert H. Klein Rodney Baker and Wade Pickren ISBN 1-59147-732-8 2007. 224 pages. Hardcover. 2007. 200 pages. Hardcover. ISBN-13: 978-1-59147-732-7 List: $59.95 List: $59.95 Item # 4313008 APA Member/Affiliate: $49.95 APA Member/Affiliate: $49.95 ISBN 1-59147-730-1 ISBN 1-59147-453-1 ISBN-13: 978-1-59147-730-3 ISBN-13: 978-1-59147-453-1 Item # 4316086 Item # 4316084 AD0485 To Order: 800-374-2721 • www.apa.org/books Available July 2006 apa books A Landmark Reference That Defi nes the Lexicon of Psychology APA Dictionary of Psychology Editor-in-Chief: Gary R. VandenBos, PhD The American Psychological Association is proud to announce the publication of an invaluable addition to your reference shelf, one that represents a major scholarly and editorial undertaking. With over 25,000 terms and defi nitions, the APA Dictionary of Psychology encompasses all areas of research and application, and includes coverage of concepts, processes, and therapies across all the major subdisciplines of psychology. Ten years in the making and edited by a distinguished editorial board of nearly 100 psychological scholars, researchers and practitioners, the Dictionary is destined to become the most authoritative reference of its kind. Academicians, researchers, clinicians, undergraduates and graduate students, and professionals in allied mental health, education, medicine, and law, as well as academic and public libraries, will fi nd the Dictionary essential. 2006. Hardcover. 1,008 pages. List: $49.95 | APA Member/Affi liate: $39.95 ISBN 1-59147-380-2 | Item # 4311007 The APA Dictionary of Psychology includes • 2 5,000 entries offering clear and authoritative defi nitions • T housands of incisive cross-references directing the user to synonyms and antonyms, acronyms and abbreviations, and related terms and concepts that deepen the user’s understanding of related topics • B alanced coverage of over 100 subject areas across the fi eld of psychology including clinical, experimental, neuropsychology, cognitive, personality and social, developmental, health, psychopharmacology, methodology and statistics, and many others • E Pnstyrciehso liongcilcuadle I nndeeaxrl yT e8rm,0s0®0 w tehricmhs hferolpms tshtue dAePnAts’s aTnhde sraeuseruasrc ohfe rs refi ne their APA database searches (such as the fl agship PsycINFO® bibliographic database’s 2+ million records) 800-374-2721 www.apa.org/books • “ iAm pGouridtaen t os tUyslies”ti ca nadn d“ Qfourimcka tG ufeidateu rteos F toor mhaetlp” trheatd etorsg emthoesrt exffpelcatinv ely use the Dictionary • E ach of four appendices gathers terms into a thematic summary listing, covering (1) biographies; (2) institutions, associations and organizations; (3) psychological therapies and interventions; and (4) psychological tests and assessment instruments AD0470 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology www.apa.org/journals/psp November 2006 Copyright © 2006 by the VOLUME 91 NUMBER 5 American Psychological Association Attitudes and Social Cognition 797 Automatic and Controlled Components of Judgment and Decision Making Mario B. Ferreira, Leonel Garcia-Marques, Steven J. Sherman, and Jeffrey W. Sherman 814 Stereotypes: Static Abstractions or Dynamic Knowledge Structures? Leonel Garcia-Marques, A. Sofia C. Santos, and Diane M. Mackie 832 Terror Management and Attributions of Blame to Innocent Victims: Reconciling Compassionate and Defensive Responses Gilad Hirschberger 845 Transcending the “Here”: The Effect of Spatial Distance on Social Judgment Marlone D. Henderson, Kentaro Fujita, Yaacov Trope, and Nira Liberman Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes 857 The Costs and Benefits of Undoing Egocentric Responsibility Assessments in Groups Eugene M. Caruso, Nicholas Epley, and Max H. Bazerman 872 When Perspective Taking Increases Taking: Reactive Egoism in Social Interaction Nicholas Epley, Eugene M. Caruso, and Max H. Bazerman 890 Cultural Affordances and Emotional Experience: Socially Engaging and Disengaging Emotions in Japan and the United States Shinobu Kitayama, Batja Mesquita, and Mayumi Karasawa 904 Will You Be There for Me When Things Go Right? Supportive Responses to Positive Event Disclosures Shelly L. Gable, Gian C. Gonzaga, and Amy Strachman 918 When Inclusion Costs and Ostracism Pays, Ostracism Still Hurts Ilja van Beest and Kipling D. Williams 929 When Sex Is More Than Just Sex: Attachment Orientations, Sexual Experience, and Relationship Quality Gurit E. Birnbaum, Harry T. Reis, Mario Mikulincer, Omri Gillath, and Ayala Orpaz Personality Processes and Individual Differences 944 Social Role and Birth Cohort Influences on Gender-Linked Personality Traits in Women: A 20-Year Longitudinal Analysis Stephanie Kasen, Henian Chen, Joel Sneed, Thomas Crawford, and Patricia Cohen (contents continue) 959 Personality Development in Emerging Adulthood: Integrating Evidence From Self-Ratings and Spouse Ratings David Watson and John Humrichouse 975 Nostalgia: Content, Triggers, Functions Tim Wildschut, Constantine Sedikides, Jamie Arndt, and Clay Routledge Other 993 Call for Nominations 871 New Editors Appointed, 2008–2013 958 Subscription Order Form ii ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION CHARLES M. JUDD, Editor University of Colorado at Boulder ASSOCIATE EDITORS ALICE H. EAGLY NIRA LIBERMAN LINDA SKITKA Northwestern University Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel University of Illinois at Chicago DACHER KELTNER University of California, Berkeley NICHOLAS EPLEY DIANE M. MACKIE JOHN SKOWRONSKI University of Chicago University of California, Santa Barbara Northern Illinois University ANNE MAASS Universita` di Padova, Padova, Italy RUSSELL H. FAZIO NEIL MACRAE ELIOT R. SMITH Ohio State University Dartmouth College Indiana University Bloomington BERND WITTENBRINK University of Chicago LISA FELDMAN BARRETT TONY MANSTEAD DIEDERIK STAPEL Boston College Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales University of Groningen, Groningen, VINCENT YZERBYT Catholic University of Louvain, SUSAN T. FISKE THOMAS MUSSWEILER the Netherlands Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium Princeton University Universita¨ t Ko¨ ln, Cologne, Germany FRITZ STRACK CONSULTING EDITORS BARBARA L. FREDRICKSON JAMES M. OLSON Universita¨ t Wu¨ rzburg, Wu¨ rzburg, University of Michigan University of Western Ontario, Germany ICEK AJZEN London, Ontario, Canada University of Massachusetts WENDI GARDNER ABRAHAM TESSER Northwestern University BERNADETTE M. PARK University of Georgia MAHZARIN BANAJI University of Colorado at Boulder Harvard University DANIEL GILBERT YAACOV TROPE Harvard University RICHARD E. PETTY New York University MONICA BIERNAT Ohio State University THOMAS GILOVICH University of Kansas THERESA K. VESCIO Cornell University NEAL J. ROESE Pennsylvania State University IRENE V. BLAIR ANTHONY G. GREENWALD University of Illinois at Urbana– University of Colorado at Boulder University of Washington Champaign WILLIAM VON HIPPEL University of New South Wales, GALEN V. BODENHAUSEN DAVID L. HAMILTON MYRON ROTHBART Sydney, Australia Northwestern University University of California, Santa University of Oregon DUANE T. WEGENER MARKUS BRAUER Barbara LAURIE RUDMAN Purdue University LAPSCO, Universite´ Blaise Pascal EDWARD R. HIRT Rutgers, The State University Clermont-Ferrand, France Indiana University Bloomington of New Jersey DANIEL M. WEGNER Harvard University MARILYNN B. BREWER TIFFANY ITO MARK SCHALLER Ohio State University University of Colorado at Boulder University of British Columbia, DIRK WENTURA JOHN T. CACIOPPO Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Saarland University, Saarbru¨ cken, YOSHIHISA KASHIMA University of Chicago University of Melbourne, Victoria, TONI SCHMADER Germany OLIVIER CORNEILLE Australia University of Arizona DANIEL WIGBOLDUS Catholic University of Louvain, KARLE CHRISTOPHE KLAUER NORBERT SCHWARZ Radboud University Nijmegen, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium Albrecht-Ludwigs-Universita¨ t University of Michigan Nijmegen, the Netherlands PATRICIA DEVINE Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany GU¨ N R. SEMIN TIMOTHY D. WILSON University of Wisconsin—Madison ARIE W. KRUGLANSKI Free University, Amsterdam, the University of Virginia University of Maryland Netherlands AP DIJKSTERHUIS PIOTR WINKIELMEN University of Amsterdam, ALAN LAMBERT JEFFREY W. SHERMAN University of California, San Diego Amsterdam, the Netherlands Washington University in St. Louis University of California, Davis MARK P. ZANNA DAVID DUNNING JENNIFER LERNER STEVEN J. SHERMAN University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Cornell University Carnegie Mellon University Indiana University Bloomington Ontario, Canada ASSISTANT TO THE EDITOR—LAURIE HAWKINS INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS AND GROUP PROCESSES JOHN F. DOVIDIO, Editor University of Connecticut ASSOCIATE EDITORS ARTHUR ARON RUPERT BROWN KLAUS FIEDLER DAPHNE BLUNT BUGENTAL State University of New York at The University of Kent at Canterbury, University of Heidelberg, University of California, Santa Barbara Stony Brook Canterbury, England Heidelberg, Germany XIMENA ARRIAGA LORNE CAMPBELL GARTH FLETCHER BEVERLEY FEHR Purdue University University of Western Ontario, University of Canterbury, University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, London, Ontario, Canada Christchurch, New Zealand Manitoba, Canada WINTON W. T. AU SHELLY GABLE SERENA CHEN The Chinese University of Hong Kong, JACQUES-PHILIPPE LEYENS University of California, Los Angeles University of California, Berkeley Shatin, Hong Kong Catholic University of Louvain, LOWELL GAERTNER Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium MARK BALDWIN MARGARET CLARK University of Tennessee, Knoxville McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Yale University ANTONY MANSTEAD SAMUEL L. GAERTNER Canada CARSTEN DE DREU Cardiff University, Cardiff, University of Delaware KIM BARTHOLOMEW University of Amsterdam, United Kingdom Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Amsterdam, the Netherlands ADAM GALINSKY Northwestern University JEFFRY A. SIMPSON British Columbia, Canada STE´ PHANIE DEMOULIN University of Minnesota, C. DANIEL BATSON Catholic University of Louvain PETER GLICK Twin Cities Campus University of Kansas Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium, and Lawrence University Belgan National Fund for Scientific STEPHANIE A. GOODWIN SCOTT TINDALE B. ANNE BETTENCOURT Research, Brussels, Belgium Purdue University Loyola University Chicago University of Missouri—Columbia DAVID DESTENO MARTIE G. HASSELTON JACQUIE D. VORAUER GERD BOHNER Northeastern University University of California, Los Angeles University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Universita¨ t Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Manitoba, Canada Germany STEVE DRIGOTAS S. ALEXANDER HASLAM Johns Hopkins University University of Exeter, Exeter, NIALL BOLGER CONSULTING EDITORS United Kingdom Columbia University ELISSA S. EPEL DOMINIC ABRAMS University of California, San VERLIN HINSZ University of Kent at Canterbury, NYLA R. BRANSCOMBE Francisco North Dakota State University Canterbury, England University of Kansas VICTORIA ESSES GORDON HODSON CHRIS AGNEW JONATHON D. BROWN University of Western Ontario, Brock University, St. Catherine’s, Purdue University University of Washington London, Ontario, Canada Ontario, Canada (editors continue) MICHAEL A. HOGG LAURA J. KRAY SABINE OTTEN CHRISTINE SMITH University of Queensland, University of California, Berkeley University of Gro¨ ningen, Grand Valley State University Brisbane, Australia Gro¨ ningen, the Netherlands JAMES R. LARSON JR. HEATHER J. SMITH ANDREA B. HOLLINGSHEAD University of Illinois at Chicago CRAIG D. PARKS Sonoma State University University of Southern California Washington State University COLIN WAYNE LEACH RUSSELL SPEARS JOHN G. HOLMES University of Sussex, Sussex, United LOUIS A. PENNER Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Kingdom Wayne State University CHARLES STANGOR Ontario, Canada JOHN LEVINE PAULA PIETROMONACO University of Maryland RICK H. HOYLE University of Pittsburgh University of Massachusetts at GARY L. STASSER University of Kentucky Amherst JOHN E. LYDON Miami University—Ohio JOLANDA JETTEN McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, TOM POSTMES WALTER STEPHAN University of Exeter, Exeter, Canada University of Exeter, Exeter, United New Mexico State University United Kingdom Kingdom JON K. MANER WILLIAM B. SWANN JR. JAMES D. JOHNSON Florida State University FELICIA PRATTO University of Texas at Austin University of North Carolina at University of Connecticut BRENDA MAJOR Wilmington JANET SWIM University of California, Santa HARRY T. REIS TATSUYA KAMEDA Barbara University of Rochester Pennsylvania State University Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan LEIGH L. THOMPSON CRAIG MCGARTY W. STEVEN RHOLES BENJAMIN R. KARNEY Australian National University, Texas A&M University Northwestern University RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, Canberra, Australia JENNIFER A. RICHESON TOM TYLER California New York University Northwestern University WENDY BERRY MENDES YOSHI KASHIMA Harvard University MARK SCHALLER JEROEN VAES University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia University of British Columbia, University of Padova, Padova, Italy RICHARD MORELAND DEBORAH A. KASHY University of Pittsburgh Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada KEES VAN DEN BOS Michigan State University DAVID A. SCHROEDER University of Utrecht, Utrecht, BRIAN MULLEN KERRY KAWAKAMI University of Arkansas the Netherlands University of Kent at Canterbury, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Canterbury, England CONSTANTINE SEDIKIDES PAUL A. M. VAN LANGE JANICE R. KELLY AME´ LIE MUMMENDEY University of Southampton, Free University, Amsterdam, Purdue University Southampton, England Amsterdam, the Netherlands Friedrich-Schiller-Universita¨ t, Jena, DACHER KELTNER Jena, Germany PHILLIP R. SHAVER LAURIE R. WEINGART University of California, Berkeley University of California, Davis Carnegie Mellon University MARK MURAVEN DAVID A. KENNY University at Albany, State University J. NICOLE SHELTON GWEN M. WITTENBAUM University of Connecticut of New York Princeton University Michigan State University DOUGLAS T. KENRICK SANDRA L. MURRAY MARGARET SHIH WENDY L. WOOD Arizona State University State University of New York at Buffalo University of Michigan Texas A&M University NORBERT L. KERR LISA A. NEFF STACEY SINCLAIR MICHAEL ZA´ RATE Michigan State University University of Toledo University of Virginia University of Texas at El Paso ASSISTANT TO THE EDITOR—CHRISTINE KELLY PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES CHARLES S. CARVER, Editor University of Miami ASSOCIATE EDITORS GEORGE A. BONANNO EDDIE HARMON-JONES DANIEL W. RUSSELL TIM KASSER Teachers College, Texas A&M University Iowa State University Knox College Columbia University TODD HEATHERTON OLIVER C. SCHULTHEISS MARIO MIKULINCER AVSHALOM CASPI Dartmouth College University of Michigan Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel King’s Colege, London SUZANNE C. SEGERSTROM JUTTA HECKHAUSEN EDWARD C. CHANG University of California, Irvine University of Kentucky EVA M. POMERANTZ University of Ilinois at Urbana– University of Michigan STEVEN J. HEINE KENNON M. SHELDON Champaign SERENA CHEN University of British Columbia, University of Missouri—Columbia University of California, Berkeley Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada C. R. SNYDER RICHARD W. ROBINS University of Kansas University of California, Davis A. TIMOTHY CHURCH RICHARD KOESTNER Washington State University McGill University SANJAY SRIVASTAVA GERARD SAUCIER Montreal, Quebec, Canada University of Oregon University of Oregon JAMES COAN University of Wisconsin—Madison DAVID LUBINSKI TIMOTHY STRAUMAN THOMAS A. WIDIGER Vanderbilt University Duke University M. LYNNE COOPER University of Kentucky University of Missouri—Columbia RICHARD E. LUCAS MICHAEL J. STRUBE CONSULTING EDITORS Michigan State University Washington University MICHAEL EID STEPHAN A. AHADI JERRY SULS University of Geneva, Geneva, ROBERT R. MCCRAE American Institutes for Research, University of Iowa Switzerland National Institute on Aging, Baltimore Washington, DC WILLIAM B. SWANN JR. ANDREW J. ELLIOT WENDY BERRY MENDES JAMIE ARNDT University of Texas at Austin University of Rochester Harvard University University of Missouri—Columbia HOWARD TENNEN LISA FELDMAN BARRETT RODOLFO MENDOZA-DENTON University of Connecticut Health JENS B. ASENDORPF Boston College University of California, Berkeley Center Humboldt-Universita¨ t Berlin WILLIAM FLEESON DANIEL K. MROCZEK Berlin, Germany SUZANNE THOMPSON Wake Forest University Fordham University Pomona College MICHAEL C. ASHTON R. CHRIS FRALEY STEPHEN A. PETRILL Brock University, St. Catherines, ROBERT J. VALLERAND University of Illinois at Chicago Pennsylvania State University Ontario, Canada Universite´ du Que´ bec a` Montre´ al ANTONIO L. FREITAS RALPH L. PIEDMONT Montreal, Quebec, Canada OZLEM AYDUK State University of New York at Loyola College in Maryland KATHLEEN D. VOHS University of California, Berkeley Stony Brook E. ASHBY PLANT University of Minnesota ROY F. BAUMEISTER DAVID C. FUNDER Florida State University DAVID WATSON Florida State University University of California, Riverside BRENT ROBERTS University of Iowa VERO´ NICA BENET-MARTI´NEZ STEVEN W. GANGESTAD University of Illinois at BARBARA WOIKE University of California, Riverside University of New Mexico Urbana–Champaign Columbia University APRIL L. BLESKE-RECHEK CAROL L. GOHM MICHAEL D. ROBINSON REX A. WRIGHT University of Wisconsin—Eau Claire University of Mississippi North Dakota State University University of Alabama at Birmingham ASSISTANT TO THE EDITOR—BARBARA ADEWUSI ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION Automatic and Controlled Components of Judgment and Decision Making Mario B. Ferreira and Leonel Garcia-Marques Steven J. Sherman University of Lisbon Indiana University Jeffrey W. Sherman University of California, Davis The categorization of inductive reasoning into largely automatic processes (heuristic reasoning) and controlled analytical processes (rule-based reasoning) put forward by dual-process approaches of judgment under uncertainty (e.g., K. E. Stanovich & R. F. West, 2000) has been primarily a matter of assumption with a scarcity of direct empirical findings supporting it. The present authors use the process dissociation procedure (L. L. Jacoby, 1991) to provide convergent evidence validating a dual-process perspective to judgment under uncertainty based on the independent contributions of heuristic and rule-based reasoning. Process dissociations based on experimental manipulation of variables were derived from the most relevant theoretical properties typically used to contrast the two forms of reasoning. These include processing goals (Experiment 1), cognitive resources (Experiment 2), priming (Experiment 3), and formal training (Experiment 4); the results consistently support the author’s perspective. They conclude that judgment under uncertainty is neither an automatic nor a controlled process but that it reflects both processes, with each making independent contributions. Keywords: dual-process approach, heuristic reasoning, rule-based reasoning, process dissociation Think for a moment about all of the relevant factors involved in For example, it is quite trivial to calculate that the likelihood of daily judgments such as the likelihood of a current relationship picking the one red ball in an urn out of 10 balls is 10% and that leading to marriage or a sports team winning a game. This mental the likelihood of picking a red ball from another urn when there are experience is usually enough to make us aware of the simple fact 8 red balls out of 100 is only 8%. Yet, even knowing this, when we that the world is too complex to predict accurately. Perhaps we can are asked from which urn we would prefer to sample and try to get rely on resource-consuming decision rules based on formal theo- a red ball and win $100, many of us have a compelling desire to ries of probability, but even those may be unsatisfactory and are choose the urn with 100 balls (and in fact, do make such a choice not always consensual. Of course, they do often work and lead to if asked to use their gut feelings), despite the fact that we “know” accurate judgments. Alternatively, instead of the deliberate use of this is an irrational choice (Denes-Raj & Epstein, 1994). Similarly, algorithms, sometimes a judgment or prediction seems to come to even though we know rationally that the two lines in the Mu¨ller- us, rather spontaneously and quickly, and a feeling of relative Lyer illusion are the same length, we cannot escape the feeling, certainty (or uncertainty) will “pop-out.” Even when basing judg- and the perception, that they are different. Some judgments seem ments on such a simple process, we sometimes make probability to come to us (and stay with us) independently of any logical judgments that are relatively well calibrated. In addition, the two considerations. kinds of judgment processes often occur together. When they From our perspective, the greatest contribution of more than 30 suggest the same answer, there is no problem or conflict. However, years of research concerning the use of heuristics and biases is not a good deal of tension and anxiety may come about when delib- so much the realization that intuitive judgments are often governed erate rule-based reasoning and intuitive heuristics produce contra- by heuristics that do not follow probability rules but it is the dictory outputs within our own heads. revelation of a gap, within our own heads, between “natural assessments” such as availability or representativeness and the deliberate application of a justifiable set of inductive rules. Mario B. Ferreira and Leonel Garcia-Marques, Department of Psychol- In recent years, dual-process approaches of judgment under ogy and Education, University of Lisbon; Steven J. Sherman, Department uncertainty (e.g., Chaiken & Trope, 1999; Kahneman & Frederick, of Psychology, Indiana University; Jeffrey W. Sherman, Department of 2002; Kirkpatrick & Epstein, 1992; Sloman, 1996; Sloman & Rips, Psychology, University of California, Davis. 1998; Stanovich & West, 2000) have categorized the cognitive Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Mario B. Ferreira, University of Lisbon, Department of Psychology and Ed- processes underlying inductive reasoning into two basic forms of ucation, Alameda de Universidade, 1649-013 Lisbon, Portugal. E-mail: reasoning: largely automatic associative processes (here referred to 798 FERREIRA, GARCIA-MARQUES, SHERMAN, AND SHERMAN 1 (rule-based reasoning [RB]). Although this characterization has underlying heuristic principles and their consequences (Kahneman & led to several property lists contrasting the two reasoning modes Tversky, 1972, 1973; Tversky & Kahneman, 1971, 1973, 1974). (Sloman, 1996; Smith & DeCoster, 1999; Stanovich & West, However, researchers readily note that, although heuristics play a 2000), such theoretical descriptions have been primarily a matter major role in judgment, reasoning based on the purposeful application of assumption with a scarcity of direct empirical findings support- of some statistical concepts is also a part of people’s judgmental ing it. In this article, we report theoretically based process disso- repertoire (e.g., Ginossar & Trope, 1987; Jepson, Krantz, & Nisbett, ciations between the two forms of reasoning, obtained by experi- 1983; Kruglanski, Friedland, & Farkash, 1984; Nisbett, Krantz, Jep- mentally manipulating variables derived from the most relevant son, & Kunda, 1983). In such research, RB is typically gauged in theoretical properties typically used to contrast the two forms of terms of correct responses (defined by applicable probability or sta- reasoning. As Kahneman (2003) has noted: “There is considerable tistical rules) or calibrated responses (defined by ecological consid- agreement on the characteristics that distinguish the two types of erations or objective criteria) to inferential problems, whereas asso- cognitive processes” (p. 698). Answering the what, how, and when ciative inferential processes (H) are usually estimated by incorrect or of H and RB seems a sensible starting point to describe the general badly calibrated responses to the same kinds of inferential tasks. view that has motivated most dual-model research in reasoning This approach contrasts with our own both conceptually and meth- and decision making. In other words, what are these two forms of odologically. At the conceptual level, the above approach implies a reasoning? How do they work? When do they become active? zero-sum or hydraulic relation between the RB and the H processes. The what: H refers to inferences based on simplifying principles As correct responses increase, incorrect responses necessarily de- such as similarity and contiguity, whereas RB refers to symboli- crease. Our dual-process approach conceives of the two processing cally represented inferential rules structured by logic. modes as contributing independently to the judgment. At the meth- The how: H operates intuitively in the sense that once triggered odological level, the above approach assumes that inferential prob- it gives rise to an autonomous process without further control until lems or tasks are pure measures of underlying processes (rule-based an end response pops out into consciousness. RB’s operation and associative processes, respectively). However, such a process- involves the deliberate application of rules that are put to work pure assumption may be troublesome to maintain because tasks differ strategically according to the person’s goals. in a number of ways beyond the extent to which they tap automatic The when: H’s activation depends only on appropriate trigger- (heuristic) versus controlled (rule-based) processes. In the same vein, ing cues (e.g., similarity matching involved in the representative- different levels of a manipulated variable may differ in ways other ness heuristic), whereas RB’s activation depends on recognizing than simply mapping onto RB and H. Several lines of research have the applicability of an abstract rule (based on the verification of led to the conclusion that there is often not a sharp dissociation formal conditions) as well as on the availability of cognitive between analytic and heuristic reasoning (Ajzen, 1977; Bar-Hillel, resources and motivation. 1979, 1980; Tversky & Kahneman, 1974, 1982). The more general point is that no task is “process pure.” An The Dual Nature of Judgment Under Uncertainty inferential task that depends entirely on heuristic processes and not A successful account of judgment under uncertainty must be at all on rule-based processes is technically unattainable. An in- capable of retaining the explanatory power of the past research on ferential task that depends entirely on rule-based processes and not simplified heuristics and biases (for reviews see Kahneman, at all on heuristic processes is highly unlikely. Rather, most, if not Slovic, & Tversky, 1982; Sherman & Corty, 1984), but it must also all, judgments under uncertainty are influenced by simultaneously be able to delineate the conditions underlying inductive judgment occurring heuristic and rule-based processes. The process-pure based on deliberate RB (e.g., Fong, Krantz, & Nisbett, 1986). problem is present, to a smaller or greater extent, in research Thus, we argue that human inductive reasoning has a dual nature: involving other variables that are known to affect respondents’ one aspect operates by heuristic principles such as similarity and performance on inferential tasks such as time available for delib- contiguity, and the other operates by the use of deliberate analytic eration (Finucane, Alhakami, Slovic, & Johnson, 2000), intelli- rules (Sloman, 1996; Smith & DeCoster, 1999). Such an approach gence (Stanovich & West, 1998, 2002), mood (Bless & Schwarz, describes several existing dual-process models of judgment under 1999), opportunities to apply intuitive representations of statistical uncertainty (Epstein, 1994; Griffin, Gonzalez, & Varey, 2001; rules (Ginossar & Trope, 1987), presentation format (Gigerenzer, Kahneman & Frederick, 2002; Stanovich & West, 1999, 2000). 1991; Tversky & Kahneman, 1983), and perceptual salience of However, none of these models has attempted to derive, in the area randomness (Ferreira & Garcia-Marques, 2003). of reasoning under uncertainty, independent estimates of these two The process-pure problem is not specific to the study of infer- processes and to observe independent effects of manipulated vari- ential processes, but it emerges whenever processes are to be ables on the two processes. Such evidence would clearly demon- measured in terms of particular experimental tasks (Hollender, strate the dual-process nature of judgments under uncertainty. 1986; Jacoby, 1991). As a consequence, selective influences of The successful modeling of dual-process approaches typically involves two steps. First, one must establish a one-to-one relation 1 We consider heuristic reasoning to be based on natural associative between processing modes and participants’ responses to inferen- assessments such as similarity matching (representativeness) and memory tial tasks. That is, the adoption of the H process must be associated fluency (availability). We also recognize that some heuristics involve with a particular response, and the adoption of the RB process meta-cognitive activity (e.g., the ease-of-retrieval heuristic) that reflect must be associated with a particular response. Second, one must judgments about the validity of activated associations rather than associa- demonstrate and understand how empirical variables selectively tive processes per se. Both involve automatic rather than reasoned, analytic affect the two processes. processes. In our studies, the heuristics do involve associative processes Research on judgment under uncertainty has traditionally used (see our subsequent definitions of H and RB), and we thus use the term errors and biases in answers to inferential problems to characterize the associative in describing heuristic reasoning.

See more

The list of books you might like

Most books are stored in the elastic cloud where traffic is expensive. For this reason, we have a limit on daily download.