Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2006, Vol. 91-03 PDF
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Volume 91 September 2006 Number 3 Published monthly ISSN 0022-3514 by the American Psychological Association Journal of Personality and Social Psychology ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION Charles M. Judd, Editor Dacher Keltner, Associate Editor Anne Maass, Associate Editor Bernd Wittenbrink, Associate Editor Vincent Yzerbyt, Associate Editor INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS AND GROUP PROCESSES John F. Dovidio, Editor Daphne Blunt Bugental, Associate Editor Beverley Fehr, Associate Editor Jacques-Philippe Leyens, Associate Editor Antony Manstead, Associate Editor Jeffry A. Simpson, Associate Editor Scott Tindale, Associate Editor Jacquie D. Vorauer, Associate Editor PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Charles S. Carver, Editor Tim Kasser, Associate Editor Mario Mikulincer, Associate Editor Eva M. Pomerantz, Associate Editor Richard W. Robins, Associate Editor Gerard Saucier, Associate Editor www.apa.org/journals/psp.html Thomas A. Widiger, Associate Editor The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology publishes original journals will be forwarded only if subscribers notify the local post office papers in all areas of personality and social psychology. It empha- in writing that they will guarantee periodicals forwarding postage. sizes empirical reports but may include specialized theoretical, methodological, and review papers. The journal is divided into three Electronic access: APA members who subscribe to this journal have independently edited sections: automatic access to a 3-year file of the journal in the PsycARTICLES姞 full-text database. See http://members.apa.org/access. f ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION addresses those domains of social behavior in which cognition plays a major role, including the interface Reprints: Authors may order reprints of their articles from the of cognition with overt behavior, affect, and motivation. 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Department of Psychology University of Connecticut 406 Babbidge Road Storrs, CT 06269-1020 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (ISSN 0022-3514) is published monthly in two volumes per year by the American PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL Psychological Association, 750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC DIFFERENCES 20002-4242. Subscriptions are available on a calendar year basis only (January through December). The 2006 rates follow: Non- Charles S. Carver, Editor member Individual: $421 Domestic, $464 Foreign, $491 Air Mail. ATTN: JPSP: PPID Department of Psychology Institutional: $1,249 Domestic, $1,340 Foreign, $1,367 Air Mail. University of Miami APA Member: $202. Write to Subscriptions Department, American P.O. Box 248185 Psychological Association, 750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC Coral Gables, FL 33124-0751 20002-4242. Printed in the U.S.A. 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Tormala, Joshua J. Clarkson, and Richard E. Petty Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes 436 Mere Effort as the Mediator of the Evaluation–Performance Relationship Stephen G. Harkins 456 High-Maintenance Interaction: Inefficient Social Coordination Impairs Self-Regulation Eli J. Finkel, W. Keith Campbell, Amy B. Brunell, Amy N. Dalton, Sarah J. Scarbeck, and Tanya L. Chartrand 476 The Time Course of Grief Reactions to Spousal Loss: Evidence From a National Probability Sample Katherine B. Carnelley, Camille B. Wortman, Niall Bolger, and Christopher T. Burke 493 What Do People Value When They Negotiate? Mapping the Domain of Subjective Value in Negotiation Jared R. Curhan, Hillary Anger Elfenbein, and Heng Xu 513 Can Manipulations of Cognitive Load Be Used to Test Evolutionary Hypotheses? H. Clark Barrett, David A. Frederick, Martie G. Haselton, and Robert Kurzban 519 Constraining Accommodative Homunculi in Evolutionary Explorations of Jealousy: A Reply to Barrett et al. (2006) David DeSteno, Monica Y. Bartlett, and Peter Salovey Personality Processes and Individual Differences 524 Conserving Self-Control Strength Mark Muraven, Dikla Shmueli, and Edward Burkley 538 Five Types of Personality Continuity in Childhood and Adolescence Filip De Fruyt, Meike Bartels, Karla G. Van Leeuwen, Barbara De Clercq, Mieke Decuyper, and Ivan Mervielde (contents continue) 553 Terror Management and Religion: Evidence That Intrinsic Religiousness Mitigates Worldview Defense Following Mortality Salience Eva Jonas and Peter Fischer 568 The Thrill of Victory and the Agony of Defeat: Spontaneous Expressions of Medal Winners of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games David Matsumoto and Bob Willingham Other 475 American Psychological Association Subscription Claims Information 435 E-Mail Notification of Your Latest Issue Online! 384 Instructions to Authors ii ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION CHARLES M. JUDD, Editor University of Colorado at Boulder ASSOCIATE EDITORS ALICE H. EAGLY NIRA LIBERMAN LINDA SKITKA Northwestern University Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel University of Illinois at Chicago DACHER KELTNER University of California, Berkeley NICHOLAS EPLEY DIANE M. MACKIE JOHN SKOWRONSKI University of Chicago University of California, Santa Barbara Northern Illinois University ANNE MAASS Universita` di Padova, Padova, Italy RUSSELL H. FAZIO NEIL MACRAE ELIOT R. SMITH Ohio State University Dartmouth College Indiana University Bloomington BERND WITTENBRINK University of Chicago LISA FELDMAN BARRETT TONY MANSTEAD DIEDERIK STAPEL Boston College Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales University of Groningen, Groningen, VINCENT YZERBYT Catholic University of Louvain, SUSAN T. FISKE THOMAS MUSSWEILER the Netherlands Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium Princeton University Universita¨ t Ko¨ ln, Cologne, Germany FRITZ STRACK CONSULTING EDITORS BARBARA L. FREDRICKSON JAMES M. OLSON Universita¨ t Wu¨ rzburg, Wu¨ rzburg, University of Michigan University of Western Ontario, Germany ICEK AJZEN London, Ontario, Canada University of Massachusetts WENDI GARDNER ABRAHAM TESSER Northwestern University BERNADETTE M. PARK University of Georgia MAHZARIN BANAJI University of Colorado at Boulder Harvard University DANIEL GILBERT YAACOV TROPE Harvard University RICHARD E. PETTY New York University MONICA BIERNAT Ohio State University THOMAS GILOVICH University of Kansas THERESA K. VESCIO Cornell University NEAL J. ROESE Pennsylvania State University IRENE V. BLAIR ANTHONY G. GREENWALD University of Illinois at Urbana– University of Colorado at Boulder University of Washington Champaign WILLIAM VON HIPPEL University of New South Wales, GALEN V. BODENHAUSEN DAVID L. HAMILTON MYRON ROTHBART Sydney, Australia Northwestern University University of California, Santa University of Oregon DUANE T. WEGENER MARKUS BRAUER Barbara LAURIE RUDMAN Purdue University LAPSCO, Universite´ Blaise Pascal EDWARD R. HIRT Rutgers, The State University Clermont-Ferrand, France Indiana University Bloomington of New Jersey DANIEL M. WEGNER Harvard University MARILYNN B. BREWER TIFFANY ITO MARK SCHALLER Ohio State University University of Colorado at Boulder University of British Columbia, DIRK WENTURA JOHN T. CACIOPPO Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Saarland University, Saarbru¨ cken, YOSHIHISA KASHIMA University of Chicago University of Melbourne, Victoria, TONI SCHMADER Germany OLIVIER CORNEILLE Australia University of Arizona DANIEL WIGBOLDUS Catholic University of Louvain, KARLE CHRISTOPHE KLAUER NORBERT SCHWARZ Radboud University Nijmegen, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium Albrecht-Ludwigs-Universita¨ t University of Michigan Nijmegen, the Netherlands PATRICIA DEVINE Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany GU¨ N R. SEMIN TIMOTHY D. WILSON University of Wisconsin—Madison ARIE W. KRUGLANSKI Free University, Amsterdam, the University of Virginia University of Maryland Netherlands AP DIJKSTERHUIS PIOTR WINKIELMEN University of Amsterdam, ALAN LAMBERT JEFFREY W. SHERMAN University of California, San Diego Amsterdam, the Netherlands Washington University in St. Louis University of California, Davis MARK P. ZANNA DAVID DUNNING JENNIFER LERNER STEVEN J. SHERMAN University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Cornell University Carnegie Mellon University Indiana University Bloomington Ontario, Canada ASSISTANT TO THE EDITOR—LAURIE HAWKINS INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS AND GROUP PROCESSES JOHN F. DOVIDIO, Editor University of Connecticut ASSOCIATE EDITORS ARTHUR ARON RUPERT BROWN KLAUS FIEDLER DAPHNE BLUNT BUGENTAL State University of New York at The University of Kent at Canterbury, University of Heidelberg, University of California, Santa Barbara Stony Brook Canterbury, England Heidelberg, Germany XIMENA ARRIAGA LORNE CAMPBELL GARTH FLETCHER BEVERLEY FEHR Purdue University University of Western Ontario, University of Canterbury, University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, London, Ontario, Canada Christchurch, New Zealand Manitoba, Canada WINTON W. T. AU SHELLY GABLE SERENA CHEN The Chinese University of Hong Kong, JACQUES-PHILIPPE LEYENS University of California, Los Angeles University of California, Berkeley Shatin, Hong Kong Catholic University of Louvain, LOWELL GAERTNER Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium MARK BALDWIN MARGARET CLARK University of Tennessee, Knoxville McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Yale University ANTONY MANSTEAD SAMUEL L. GAERTNER Canada CARSTEN DE DREU Cardiff University, Cardiff, University of Delaware KIM BARTHOLOMEW University of Amsterdam, United Kingdom Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Amsterdam, the Netherlands ADAM GALINSKY Northwestern University JEFFRY A. SIMPSON British Columbia, Canada STE´ PHANIE DEMOULIN University of Minnesota, C. DANIEL BATSON Catholic University of Louvain PETER GLICK Twin Cities Campus University of Kansas Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium, and Lawrence University Belgan National Fund for Scientific STEPHANIE A. GOODWIN SCOTT TINDALE B. ANNE BETTENCOURT Research, Brussels, Belgium Purdue University Loyola University Chicago University of Missouri—Columbia DAVID DESTENO MARTIE G. HASSELTON JACQUIE D. VORAUER GERD BOHNER Northeastern University University of California, Los Angeles University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Universita¨ t Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Manitoba, Canada Germany STEVE DRIGOTAS S. ALEXANDER HASLAM Johns Hopkins University University of Exeter, Exeter, NIALL BOLGER CONSULTING EDITORS United Kingdom Columbia University ELISSA S. EPEL DOMINIC ABRAMS University of California, San VERLIN HINSZ University of Kent at Canterbury, NYLA R. BRANSCOMBE Francisco North Dakota State University Canterbury, England University of Kansas VICTORIA ESSES GORDON HODSON CHRIS AGNEW JONATHON D. BROWN University of Western Ontario, Brock University, St. Catherine’s, Purdue University University of Washington London, Ontario, Canada Ontario, Canada (editors continue) MICHAEL A. HOGG LAURA J. KRAY SABINE OTTEN CHRISTINE SMITH University of Queensland, University of California, Berkeley University of Gro¨ ningen, Grand Valley State University Brisbane, Australia Gro¨ ningen, the Netherlands JAMES R. LARSON JR. HEATHER J. SMITH ANDREA B. HOLLINGSHEAD University of Illinois at Chicago CRAIG D. PARKS Sonoma State University University of Southern California Washington State University COLIN WAYNE LEACH RUSSELL SPEARS JOHN G. HOLMES University of Sussex, Sussex, United LOUIS A. PENNER Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Kingdom Wayne State University CHARLES STANGOR Ontario, Canada JOHN LEVINE PAULA PIETROMONACO University of Maryland RICK H. HOYLE University of Pittsburgh University of Massachusetts at GARY L. STASSER University of Kentucky Amherst JOHN E. LYDON Miami University—Ohio JOLANDA JETTEN McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, TOM POSTMES WALTER STEPHAN University of Exeter, Exeter, Canada University of Exeter, Exeter, United New Mexico State University United Kingdom Kingdom JON K. MANER WILLIAM B. SWANN JR. JAMES D. JOHNSON Florida State University FELICIA PRATTO University of Texas at Austin University of North Carolina at University of Connecticut BRENDA MAJOR Wilmington JANET SWIM University of California, Santa HARRY T. 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KELLY AME´ LIE MUMMENDEY University of Southampton, Free University, Amsterdam, Purdue University Southampton, England Amsterdam, the Netherlands Friedrich-Schiller-Universita¨ t, Jena, DACHER KELTNER Jena, Germany PHILLIP R. SHAVER LAURIE R. WEINGART University of California, Berkeley University of California, Davis Carnegie Mellon University MARK MURAVEN DAVID A. KENNY University at Albany, State University J. NICOLE SHELTON GWEN M. WITTENBAUM University of Connecticut of New York Princeton University Michigan State University DOUGLAS T. KENRICK SANDRA L. MURRAY MARGARET SHIH WENDY L. WOOD Arizona State University State University of New York at Buffalo University of Michigan Texas A&M University NORBERT L. KERR LISA A. NEFF STACEY SINCLAIR MICHAEL ZA´ RATE Michigan State University University of Toledo University of Virginia University of Texas at El Paso ASSISTANT TO THE EDITOR—CHRISTINE KELLY PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES CHARLES S. CARVER, Editor University of Miami ASSOCIATE EDITORS GEORGE A. BONANNO EDDIE HARMON-JONES DANIEL W. RUSSELL TIM KASSER Teachers College, Texas A&M University Iowa State University Knox College Columbia University TODD HEATHERTON OLIVER C. SCHULTHEISS MARIO MIKULINCER AVSHALOM CASPI Dartmouth College University of Michigan Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel King’s Colege, London SUZANNE C. SEGERSTROM JUTTA HECKHAUSEN EDWARD C. CHANG University of California, Irvine University of Kentucky EVA M. POMERANTZ University of Ilinois at Urbana– University of Michigan STEVEN J. HEINE KENNON M. SHELDON Champaign SERENA CHEN University of British Columbia, University of Missouri—Columbia University of California, Berkeley Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada C. R. SNYDER RICHARD W. ROBINS University of Kansas University of California, Davis A. 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ASENDORPF Boston College University of California, Berkeley Center Humboldt-Universita¨ t Berlin WILLIAM FLEESON DANIEL K. MROCZEK Berlin, Germany SUZANNE THOMPSON Wake Forest University Fordham University Pomona College MICHAEL C. ASHTON R. CHRIS FRALEY STEPHEN A. PETRILL Brock University, St. Catherines, ROBERT J. VALLERAND University of Illinois at Chicago Pennsylvania State University Ontario, Canada Universite´ du Que´ bec a` Montre´ al ANTONIO L. FREITAS RALPH L. PIEDMONT Montreal, Quebec, Canada OZLEM AYDUK State University of New York at Loyola College in Maryland KATHLEEN D. VOHS University of California, Berkeley Stony Brook E. ASHBY PLANT University of Minnesota ROY F. BAUMEISTER DAVID C. FUNDER Florida State University DAVID WATSON Florida State University University of California, Riverside BRENT ROBERTS University of Iowa VERO´ NICA BENET-MARTI´NEZ STEVEN W. GANGESTAD University of Illinois at BARBARA WOIKE University of California, Riverside University of New Mexico Urbana–Champaign Columbia University APRIL L. BLESKE-RECHEK CAROL L. GOHM MICHAEL D. ROBINSON REX A. WRIGHT University of Wisconsin—Eau Claire University of Mississippi North Dakota State University University of Alabama at Birmingham ASSISTANT TO THE EDITOR—JESSICA LILLESAND ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION Voluntary Settlement and the Spirit of Independence: Evidence from Japan’s “Northern Frontier” Shinobu Kitayama Keiko Ishii University of Michigan Hokkaido University Toshie Imada Kosuke Takemura University of Michigan Hokkaido University Jenny Ramaswamy Golden Gate University The authors hypothesized that economically motivated voluntary settlement in the frontier fosters independent agency. While illuminating the historical origin of American individualism, this hypothesis can be most powerfully tested in a region that is embedded in a broader culture of interdependence and yet has undergone a recent history of such settlement. The authors therefore examined residents of Japan’s northern island (Hokkaido). Hokkaido was extensively settled by ethnic Japanese beginning in the 1870s and for several decades thereafter. Many of the current residents of Hokkaido are the descendents of the original settlers from this period. As predicted, Japanese socialized and/or immersed in Hokkaido were nearly as likely as European Americans in North America to associate happiness with personal achievement (Study 1), to show a personal dissonance effect wherein self-justification is motivated by a threat to personal self-images (Study 2), and to commit a dispositional bias in causal attribution (Study 3). In contrast, these marker effects of independent agency were largely absent for non-Hokkaido residents in Japan. Implications for theories of cultural change and persistence are discussed. Keywords: culture and self, attribution, subjective well-being, dissonance, individualism In the last 400 years, the United States has been a major magnet address, March 4, 1881; Schlesinger, 1986). Over nearly 3 centu- for immigrants from all over the world (Hong, Wan, No, & Chiu, ries, until the end of the 19th century, new lands of the West were in press; Sua´rez-Orozco, 2003). With the important exception of continuously acquired, opened, exploited, and settled by Ameri- African Americans, who were forced to work as slaves, the vast cans of mostly European descent, and the frontier rapidly moved majority of immigrants voluntarily settled in North America. westbound. What had once been the west of the territory was soon Moreover, from its very beginning, the history of the United States to become its midwest, for example. was that of relentless expansion to the west. This westbound The mentality, or cultural ethos, that was fostered by this col- expansion was justified in terms of a mythology of manifest lective social movement of immigration and subsequent settlement destiny, which proposes that it is a sacred mission of all Americans in the frontier is called the frontier spirit (Turner, 1920). This to extend the “boundaries of freedom” (J. A. Garfield, inaugural cultural ethos is composed of collective beliefs and practices of independent agency (Kitayama & Uchida, 2005; Markus & Kitayama, 2004). Importantly anchored in the idea of the “Amer- Shinobu Kitayama and Toshie Imada, Department of Psychology, Univer- ican dream” (Hochschild, 1995), independent agency is composed sity of Michigan; Keiko Ishii and Kosuke Takemura, Department of Behav- of strong orientations toward personal goal pursuit and personal ioral Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan; Jenny Ra- choice. Many observers of American culture (e.g., Bellah, Madsen, maswamy, International Admissions and Advising, Golden Gate University. Sullivan, Swindler, & Tipton, 1985; Dewey, 1930; Schlesinger, We thank members of the Hokkaido University Center of Excellence 1986; de Tocqueville, 1862/1969; Turner, 1920) have pointed out Program on Cultural and Ecological Foundations of the Mind for their that the history of voluntary settlement in the frontier significantly support in carrying out this work. We also thank Don Munro for his helpful contributed to American individualism as it is known today. The comments on an earlier version of the article. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Shinobu purpose of the present work is to examine this possibility. We Kitayama, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 503 Church argue that if voluntary settlement in the frontier is causally linked Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. E-mail: 370 KITAYAMA, ISHII, IMADA, TAKEMURA, AND RAMASWAMY dence should be found in other regions of the world insofar as the Triangulation: Identifying Causally Active Elements of regions share a similar history of voluntary settlement. Culture It goes without saying that many aspects of the contemporary Voluntary Settlement Hypothesis American culture have their origins in the modern period in In analyzing cultural consequences of voluntary settlement, we Western Europe. Furthermore, many of the ideas of the modern must take three distinct processes into account. First, voluntary West can be traced back to Greek civilization (Nisbett, 2003). settlement in a frontier is motivated by desires for personal wealth Reformation of the Catholic church and the resulting Calvinic and freedom, and, furthermore, it requires a major investment and varieties of Protestantism had a major influence (Sanchez-Berks, personal sacrifice for anyone who engages in it. Accordingly, we 2005; Weber, 1904/1930). So did numerous philosophers of the hypothesize that voluntary settlers are likely to have a highly Enlightenment, including Rousseau, Locke, and Voltaire (B. Mor- autonomous, independent, goal-oriented mental set. This goal- ris, 1991; Taylor, 1979). Yet the voluntary settlement hypothesis oriented mental set predisposes the individuals to seek novelty and suggests that, in addition to the modern Western European influ- to take risks. As Fredrick Jackson Turner (1920)—the first propo- ences and heritage, the initial emigration to the land of opportunity nent of the frontier thesis for American individualism—noted, and the subsequent social movement of expanding the nation’s referring to early settlers who set out for westbound journeys from territory to the western frontier substantially fostered and rein- the East Coast cities and colonies of America, forced the ethos of independence in North America. In the process, Whenever social conditions tended to crystallize in the East, whenever religious and many other ideational elements of the modern West capital tended to press upon labor or political restraints to impede the must have been inseparably interwoven into the spirit of indepen- freedom of the mass, there was this gate of escape to the free dent agency. Although cursory, this historical analysis reveals a conditions of the frontier. These free lands promoted individualism, serious problem in testing the voluntary settlement hypothesis: economic equality, freedom to rise, [and] democracy. (p. 259) Many sociohistorical factors are confounded with the westbound Second, frontier life is often harsh, and every endeavor entails expansion during the 17th through the 19th centuries; moreover, substantial risks—both economic and corporeal—and, thus, more these factors initially seem impossible to disentangle. often than not, mere survival is at stake. Westbound journeys were One powerful tool for disentangling the history and identifying filled with immediate dangers of many sorts. Day after day, there causally active elements of culture is the method of triangulation 1 was a dire need for self-protection and self-promotion. Without (Medin, Unsworth, & Hirschfeld, in press). Imagine Culture A and the mental qualities of independent goal pursuit, self-directedness, Culture B. Culture A is more independent than Culture B, and the and self-reliance (and some luck), a sure death was waiting for task is to test the hypothesis that one significant cause for the settlers along the way (Stewart, 1963). These life conditions of the independence of Culture A is its relatively recent history of vol- frontier are likely to reinforce the goal-oriented mental set of untary settlement. One can critically test this hypothesis if one can independent agency (Schooler & Mulatu, 2004). identify a subculture in Culture B, Culture B⬘, that is like Culture Third, a region that is composed of a large number of voluntary B in all conceivable dimensions and aspects except for the hypoth- settlers with goal-oriented mental characteristics will soon develop esized causal element—that is, voluntary settlement: Unlike Cul- a culturally shared lay theory of behavior as internally motivated ture B, Culture B⬘ has undergone a recent history of voluntary and controlled. This dispositional lay theory of independence is settlement. If one could show that Culture B⬘ is more similar to ingrained into social practices, daily routines, modes of child Culture A than to Culture B in respect to independent agency, this rearing, daily discourses, and even explicit education. We suggest would support the hypothesized role of voluntary settlement in that, in the frontier, the lay theory of independence is often 2 producing the independent orientation. appropriated to foster social relations and social organizations. In this way, the cultural environment is gradually structured to sustain the ethos of independence. In the process, the dispositional lay 1 Although the westbound expansion was often subsidized by the federal theory of independence becomes fully legitimized and normative; government (Stegner, 1953), the social organizations of the living envi- as a consequence, it is likely to be transmitted over generations, ronments of the settlers were far more primitive than those in the East 3 even when the frontier ceases to be a reality. Today, for example, Coast cities. 2 the frontier and an associated image of the American dream might Hence, it is misleading to equate the frontier spirit with the popular seem a myth from the past. In fact, however, many aspects of daily images of “rugged individualism,” wherein humans are defined as “solitary life and events, from personal narratives (McAdams, 2005) to island dwellers rather than as gregarious collaborators,” and governmental regulation is seen as an “unwarranted interference with the individual’s American foreign policies and beyond (e.g., Faludi, 2003), are right to pursue self-interest” (Coontz, 1992, p. 52). powerfully organized and given shape and force by various images 3 In other words, the dispositional lay theory will eventually attain the of the frontier and the American dream (Hochschild, 1995). status of the most unquestionable and, thus, typically unspoken tacit When taken in combination, the three processes—self-selection assumption—or what Daryl Bem (1972) aptly called the “zero-order for settlement, reinforcement of independence during settlement, belief” (p. 6) of the society. and institutionalization of tacit beliefs and practices of indepen- 4 The notion of independent agency is close to what Kashima et al. 4 dence—induce and maintain the ethos of independent agency. (2004) called agency. Yet agency can also be interdependent (Kitayama & This culture of frontier is likely to be resilient and rapidly consol- Uchida, 2005; Markus & Kitayama, 2004). Moreover, it is our working idated because it is created anew, “from scratch,” in a place that is assumption that agency, in the sense of systems of behavioral regulation, is relatively separated both from the rest of the world and from its best assessed not by self-reflective judgments about it but rather by online own past. measures of behaviors, both overt and covert (e.g., cognition).
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