Jesuit Contribution to Science: A History

285 Pages·2014·6.42 MB·English

by  Agustín Udías

Jesuit Contribution to Science

Agustín Udías
Jesuit Contribution
to Science
A History
Agustín Udías
Department of Geophysics and Meteorology
Complutense University of Madrid
Madrid , Spain
ISBN 978-3-319-08364-3 ISBN 978-3-319-08365-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-08365-0
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Prefa ce
The presence of the Jesuits in different fi elds of the natural sciences is an interesting
phenomenon that has attracted academic and general attention and can be found in
the literature. The Jesuits are popularly known as religious persons who are involved
in scientifi c work, and they appear as such in some science fi ction novels. A few
years after its founding in 1540 by Saint Ignatius of Loyola, the Society of Jesus
undertook its educational endeavor as the key instrument of its apostolic work.
From the beginning, as a novelty for the time, a special attention was given in the
fi rst colleges to the teaching of mathematics and astronomy. This coincided with the
origins of modern science, and Jesuit professors were in contact with many of its
key fi gures, such as Galileo, Kepler, Huygens, and Newton. Jesuit missionaries
introduced European mathematics and astronomy to China and India; made the fi rst
maps of the unknown regions of America, Asia, and Africa; and brought to Europe
the fi rst news about the geography, animals, and plants of those lands. The scientifi c
work of the Jesuits during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries until the suppression
of the order in 1773 is the subject of a large number of studies. Less known is the
Jesuit scientifi c contribution during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, espe-
cially in the fi elds of astronomy, geophysics, and meteorology. Although a good
number of books and articles have been published about partial aspects of the his-
tory of Jesuit scientists, especially for the fi rst period, there is no complete history
that covers both periods in a unifi ed form. This is the aim of the present book.
Among other things, this book tries to answer three main questions: what moved
the Jesuits to give an important place to mathematics and astronomy in their fi rst
colleges in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, why did they after their restora-
tion in the nineteenth century establish a worldwide network of observatories, and
what happened after the 1970s that caused the closing of the observatories and the
decrease of Jesuit presence in science. Given the wide extension of the material this
book tries to cover, I have had to select the persons and contributions that I consider
most relevant, without attempting to study them at the depth that would be possible.
It may be intriguing to some that a religious order of the Catholic Church has had a
v
vi Preface
continuous contribution to make to science still maintained today. This book may
help to answer these questions by giving an overall image, as complete as possible,
of the history of that contribution. Moreover, I try to fi nd a relation between the
scientifi c work of the Jesuits and their spirituality. Thus, this book is directed to all
those interested in the scientifi c work of the Jesuits and who are curious about the
reasons behind it .
The book begins with a discussion on Christopher Clavius, Professor of
Mathematics in the Roman College between 1567 and 1595, the initiator of this
tradition (Chap. 1 ). It was in his time that relations between the Jesuits and Galileo
began, an important factor in the history of science. The fi rst fi ve chapters cover the
Jesuits’ scientifi c contributions especially in mathematics, astronomy, and physics,
before the suppression of the Society in 1773. Contributions of professors of math-
ematics, astronomy and physics are presented in Chap. 2 . Two key fi gures of this
period are Kircher and Boscovich, both discussed in Chap. 3 . Scientifi c work pro-
gressed at the almost 600 Jesuit colleges in Europe where 32 astronomical observa-
tories were installed, the fi rst in several countries. Chapter 4 presents the extraordinary
adventure of the Jesuit astronomers in China, starting with the arrival to Beijing of
Matteo Ricci in 1601. For 150 years, the Jesuits were the directors of the Imperial
Astronomical Observatory and held the dignity of mandarins. Less known is the
work of Jesuit astronomers in India and their failed journey to Indochina. Chapter 5
deals with Jesuit naturalists, geographers, and explorers. The discovery of America
gave the Jesuits the possibility to study and to make known in Europe the character-
istics and novelties of the geography and fauna and fl ora of those hitherto unknown
lands. The Jesuits explored those new lands from Canada to Patagonia, and they
were the fi rst Europeans to navigate the great rivers, the Mississippi, the Amazon,
and the Orinoco. Their interest in geography led to an impressive work of cartogra-
phy, preparing the fi rst maps of many regions of America, China, India, Tibet, and
Ethiopia. This work was interrupted by the suppression of the order by Pope Clement
XIV in 1773.
After their restoration in 1814, the Jesuits resumed their scientifi c work. To this
period, the book dedicates its last fi ve chapters. In this period, the Jesuits’ scientifi c
work changed with respect to the earlier periods and had a somewhat apologetic
character aimed against those who attacked the Church at that time in opposition to
science. The Jesuits’ scientifi c work was an answer to such attacks. From 1825, the
Jesuits established a new network of about 70 observatories throughout the world,
as presented in Chap. 6 . Many of those installed in Africa, Asia, and Central and
South America were the fi rst such scientifi c institutions in those countries. The con-
tribution to the study of terrestrial magnetism (Chap. 6 ), tropical hurricanes (Chap.
7 ), and earthquakes (Chap. 8 ) was especially important. Exceptional among the
most relevant fi gures, presented in Chap. 9 , are Secchi in astrophysics, Perry in
geophysics and astronomy, Macelwane in seismology, and Teilhard de Chardin in
geology and paleontology, who was also famous for his infl uential thought on the
relation between evolution and Christian faith. At the present time, the Jesuits man-
age 133 universities and more than 300 secondary schools. In Chap. 1 0 , I deal with
Preface vii
modern Jesuit scientists in universities and schools, where they combine teaching
and research, and there is special mention of those dedicated to biology.
After this overview of the fi ve centuries of the Jesuit scientifi c tradition, unique
in the Catholic Church, one may still have questions about the reasons behind it. In
the Epilogue, I try to answer this question by linking dedication to science with the
specifi c Jesuit spirituality. Saint Ignatius insisted that the Jesuits strive to fi nd God
in all things. In this spirit, the Jesuits endeavor in their apostolic work to enter the
fi eld of scientifi c research as a mission territory. Thus, patient work in observatories
and laboratories is for the Jesuits as appropriate as preaching or pastoral work in
parish churches. For them, science as knowledge and as an instrument for the good
of mankind is also a means for the propagation of the Christian faith. Following this
long tradition, the Jesuits have trodden an uncommon path to the frontiers where the
Christian message has not yet reached.
Given the large amount of material to be covered, broad brushstrokes are needed
to present this interesting history. Many items and persons that may have deserved
mention had unfortunately to be left out. But I have made an effort to present at least
the most representative items. The Jesuits and their work are presented in the con-
text of the history of science. In particular, I delve into the relation of the Jesuits
with important scientists of their time. In order to highlight Jesuit scientists bio-
graphical information (dates of birth and death) is only given for them. The bibliog-
raphy, though quite large, has been restricted to the most important works. Except
for a few of them, books by Jesuit scientists referred to in the text are not included
in the bibliography. I have made abundant use of the D iccionario Histórico de la
Compañía de Jesús edited by O’Neill and Domínguez and of the B ibliothèque de la
Compagnie de Jésus by Sommervogel, verifying in them all the Jesuits mentioned,
although not quoting them explicitly in each case. The book discusses a total of 363
Jesuit scientists: 50 mathematicians; 45 physicists; 110 astronomers; 70 geophysi-
cists, geologists, and meteorologists; 4 chemists; 21 biologists; 39 naturalists, geog-
raphers, and cartographers; and 24 explorers (Appendix 1 ). In fact this is only a
small sample of the large number of Jesuits dedicated to science since the founda-
tion of the Society of Jesus. The Dictionary of Scientifi c Biography , edited by
Gillespie, included 29 of the Jesuits mentioned here (Appendix 2 ). These may be
considered the most representative.
Finally, I want to thank all those who have contributed to this work, fi rst of all
Joseph Munitiz S.J. of Campion Hall (Oxford), who patiently corrected the English
text. I acknowledge the help from librarians and archivists of Jesuit libraries and
archives, especially those of Rome, Paris, Cologne, and London, and from many
Jesuit observatories and universities that made available their publications and doc-
uments. I also thank the many Jesuit companions who have encouraged me in my
work.
Madrid, Spain Agustín Udías

Contents
1 Clavius and Mathematics in the Collegio Romano ............................... 1
1.1 Mathematics in the First Jesuit Colleges ....................................... 1
1.2 Christopher Clavius, the Beginning of a Tradition ........................ 4
1.3 Clavius and Mathematics in the Ratio studiorum .......................... 9
1.4 The Debate About the Certainty of Mathematics .......................... 12
1.5 Disciples and Successors ............................................................... 14
1.6 The Jesuits and Galileo .................................................................. 17
2 Mathematics, Astronomy and Physics in Colleges
and Observatories ................................................................................... 23
2.1 From the Geometry of Euclid to the Integral Calculus .................. 23
2.2 The First Astronomical Observatories ........................................... 29
2.3 Acceptance of the Heliocentric System ......................................... 35
2.4 The Transits of Venus ..................................................................... 40
2.5 Mathematical and Experimental Physics ....................................... 43
2.6 Optics and Magnetism ................................................................... 47
2.7 Introduction of Modern Physics ..................................................... 50
3 Kircher and Boscovich, Two Leading Figures ...................................... 55
3.1 Athanasius Kircher, His Work and Museum .................................. 55
3.2 The Cosmic Force of Magnetism ................................................... 60
3.3 The Mysteries of the Geocosmos ................................................... 63
3.4 Light, Sound and a Journey Through the Cosmos ......................... 65
3.5 Roger Boscovich and Modern Science .......................................... 68
3.6 A Dynamic Atomic Theory ............................................................ 71
3.7 Mathematics, Astronomy, Optics and Geodesy ............................. 74
4 Jesuit Astronomers in China and India ................................................ 79
4.1 Matteo Ricci, from Macerata to Beijing ........................................ 79
4.2 The Reform of the Calendar .......................................................... 84
4.3 Johann Schall and Ferdinad Verbiest ............................................. 87
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