Jatropha Assessment. Agronomy, socio-economic issues, and ecology. Facts from literature.

157 Pages·2011·3.39 MB·English

Jatropha
Assessment
Jatropha Assessment | November 2010

Jatropha Assessment
Agronomy, socio-economic issues, and ecology
Facts from literature

Colofon
Date November 2010
Status Final version

This study was carried out in the framework of the Netherlands Programmes
Sustainable Biomass by

Name organisation Copernicus Institute, Utrecht University
Technical University, Eindhoven
Plant Research International, Wageningen UR
Contact person Janske van Eijck (UU)
Edward Smeets (UU)
Henny Romijn (TU/e)
Annelies Balkema (TU/e)
Raymond Jongschaap (WUR)

Although this report has been put together with the greatest possible care, NL Agency does
not accept liability for possible errors.

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Jatropha Assessment | November 2010

Contact
Netherlands Programmes Sustainable Biomass

Ir. Kees W. Kwant and drs. Sietske Boschma
NL Agency
NL Energy and Climate Change
Croeselaan 15, 3521 BJ Utrecht
P.O. Box 8242, 3503 RE Utrecht
The Netherlands
Email: [e-mail]
Phone: +31 - 88 - 6022687
www.agentschapNL.nl/biomass

Copernicus Institute, Faculty of Science – Utrecht University (UU)

The Copernicus Institute, part of Utrecht University, aims to support the search for
sustainable development and innovation through the development of knowledge,
methods and instruments. The Institute has a strong track record in relation to
bioenergy research and advice. This report is executed by the department Science,
Technology & Society (STS), which is one of the four departments that form a part
of the Copernicus Institute.
Department of Science, Technology and Society
Heidelberglaan 2, 3584 CS Utrecht, the Netherlands
Tel: [phone]
Fax: [phone]
Email: [e-mail]

Wageningen University and Research centre – Plant Research International (WUR-PRI)

Focus of the Business unit Agrosystems Research of Plant Research International
is the innovation of agrosystems. Here, we design and develop socially desirable
production systems, which are ecologically and economically responsible and take
full account of other functions in rural areas. Our experience in various Jatropha
curcas projects since 2006 (www.jatropha.wur.nl) resulted in the coordination of
EU FP7 JATROPT project (2010-2013) on jatropha plant breeding
(www.jatropt.eu).
Business Unit Agrosystems Research
Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, the Netherlands
Tel: [phone]
Fax: [phone]
Email: [e-mail]

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Jatropha Assessment | November 2010

Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e)

The contribution of Eindhoven University of Technology is produced by employees
of the department of Innovation Sciences for whom the transition towards
sustainable energy technologies is the main research interest. This report brings
together expertise from the TU/e programs ‘System innovations and sustainability
transitions’ and ‘Technology Flows, Knowledge Economy & Economic Performance’
focusing on technical innovations and transitions in society and the understanding
of the interaction between technological learning and economic performance and
the influences of public policies.
Den Dolech, 5612 AZ, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
Tel: [phone]
Fax: [phone]
Email: [e-mail]
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Jatropha Assessment | November 2010

Index

Colofon—2

Contact—3

Glossary—8

Executive summary—9

1 Introduction—16

2 Methodology—17

3 Overview of reviewed studies—18

3.1 Agronomic aspects—18

3.2 Socio economic and ecological aspects—18

4 Agronomy—20

4.1 From germinating seeds to transplanting seedlings—22

4.2 Direct seeding, transplanting seedlings and cuttings—24

4.3 In-vitro propagation—25

4.4 Production systems and plant spacing—26

4.5 Response to radiation, temperature, water and nutrients—28

4.6 Fertilization requirements—29

4.7 Water requirements and irrigation—31

4.8 Pruning—33

4.9 Hormones / PGR ( Plant Growth Regulators)—33

4.10 Conclusions and recommendations—35

5 Social aspects—37

5.1 Food security—37

5.1.1 General issues—37

5.1.2 Impact of a smallholder system on food security (availability and access)—38

5.1.3 Impact of a plantation model on food security (availability and access)—41

5.1.4 Conclusions and recommendations—42

5.2 Local prosperity (rural and social development)—43

5.2.1 Local use of Jatropha products, impact on local prosperity—44

5.2.2 Seed and oil production, impact on local prosperity—46

5.2.3 Summary—53

5.2.4 Conclusions and recommendations—54

5.3 Labour/working conditions (human/labour rights)—55

5.3.1 Legal issues—56

5.3.2 Wages/remuneration and other benefits—56

5.3.3 Child labour—57

5.3.4 Safety—57

5.3.5 Health—58

5.3.6 Conclusions and recommendations—58

5.4 Land ownership and land rights—59

5.4.1 Land availability and access, smallholders—60

5.4.2 Land availability and access, plantation—62

5.4.3 Conclusions and recommendations—65

5.5 Gender—66
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Jatropha Assessment | November 2010

5.5.1 Gender and Employment—67

5.5.2 Gender and Energy Services—67

5.5.3 Gender and Land availability—68

5.5.4 Conclusions and recommendations—69

6 Ecological aspects—70

6.1 GHG balance, LCA—70

6.1.1 Methodology—70

6.1.2 Explaining the differences—73

6.1.3 Sensitivity analysis—75

6.1.4 Conclusions and recommendations—80

6.2 Biodiversity—80

6.2.1 Previous land use—80

6.2.2 Intensity of production—81

6.2.3 Conclusions and recommendations—81

7 Economic feasibility of Jatropha activities—82

7.1 Introduction—82

7.1.1 Conclusions—83

7.2 Methodological note on Cost Benefit Analysis—83

7.3 Feasibility of Jatropha in Eastern and Southeastern Africa—85

7.3.1 Kenya—85

7.3.2 Tanzania—88

7.3.3 Mozambique—93

7.3.4 Conclusions and recommendations—95

7.4 Feasibility of Jatropha in India—96

7.4.1 Conclusions and recommendations—100

7.5 Preliminary feasibility estimates for two contrasting business models—100

7.5.1 Conclusions—102

8 Some technical aspects—103

8.1 Seedcake—103

8.1.1 Fertilizer—103

8.1.2 Fuel—104

8.1.3 Conclusions and recommendations—105

8.2 Processing—105

8.2.1 Hand pressing—105

8.2.2 Mechanical pressing—105

8.2.3 Chemical extraction—106

8.2.4 Further processing—106

8.2.5 Conclusions and recommendations—106

9 Other relevant aspects—108

9.1 Market prospects—108

9.1.1 International markets—108

9.1.2 Domestic or local markets—108

9.1.3 Sustainability criteria—109

9.1.4 Conclusions and recommendations—109

9.2 Organisation (business models, production structure)—109

9.2.1 Different models—109

9.2.2 Impacts of the models—111

9.2.3 Conclusions and recommendations—112
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9.3 Policy issues—113

9.3.1 Mozambique—113

9.3.2 India—114

9.3.3 Indonesia—114

9.3.4 Tanzania—114

9.3.5 Kenya—114

9.3.6 Conclusions and recommendations—115

10 Conclusions—116

10.1 Agronomy—116

10.2 Social aspects—117

10.3 Ecological aspects—117

10.4 Economic and technical aspects—118

11 References—120

Sub ANNEX I: Appendix to Figure 4.2 about Jatropha productivity—141

ANNEX II: Literature used for socio economic aspects—142

ANNEX III: Appendix to sub-section 7.5—153

ANNEX IV: Literature used for technical aspects—155

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Glossary
Jatropha: Jatropha curcas Linnaeus

Outgrower or contract farmer: a farmer (most often as smallholder) who has a
contract with a processor to sell the produced Jatropha seeds. The input materials
are sometimes provided for free, transport expenses might be arranged in the
contract.

Smallholder: a small farmer who produces mainly for subsistence. He/she can be
an outgrower/contract farmer or independent producer.

RSB: Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels

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Jatropha Assessment | November 2010
Executive summary
Agronomy
Agronomy aspects of jatropha are merely reported for juvenile Jatropha curcas
plants (seedlings) and relatively young production systems of less than 3 years
old. Reports on germination, transplanting and propagation are quite complete,
but mostly refer to (greenhouse) experiments and to a lesser extent to small-scale
and industrial scale field production sites. The lack of well described methodologies
for the response of Jatropha curcas to natural and additional resources such as
radiation, temperature, water and nutrients is striking, but understandable, as the
majority of Jatropha stakeholders are not equipped and not educated to produce
scientifically sound reports on Jatropha curcas growth and production. Only limited
experimental fertilization experiments have been presented so far.
Recommendations on fertilization and irrigation strategies may still be lacking
because recycling of nutrients is not well understood either. The toxic compounds
(phorbol esters) of jatropha plant residues and press-cake degrade within 10 days
when incorporated in the soil, and could not be traced in vegetable crops fertilized
with jatropha press-cake.

Pruning methods (timing, frequency and technique) play a very important role in
Jatropha curcas flowering rates, but are not well covered in the experimental and
the small-scale and industrial production domains. This should be further
investigated.

Productivity reports mostly refer to fresh seed weights on a per tree basis (g tree-
1), instead of dry seed weights on a per area unit basis (kg ha-1). Productivity
reports further lack important information on plant spacing (in-row and between-
row distance), and other crucial information, such as the sample size (number of
measured trees) that are required to provide the necessary insights in competition
effects. Current jatropha seed productivity ranges between 500-2000 kg ha-1year-
1. Sound reports on the productivity of intercropping and hedge row production
systems are not well represented, although these production systems will become
very important in small-scale jatropha production In general, the comparison
between different Jatropha curcas genotypes is not available at all, although large
plant breeding initiatives aim at productivity, oil quality, toxicity and tolerance to
pests and diseases on the basis of Central American genotypes that are genetically
more diverse than genotypes from other regions.

Recommendations on agronomic aspects:
• Scientifically sound methodologies (as detailed in Chapter 3) should be
introduced for collecting observations on growth, production and development
in new and in existing (older) Jatropha curcas production systems.
• Fruit coats, press-cake and pruning contain considerable amounts of nutrients.
For environmental sustainable production, nutrients that are removed from the
fields by harvests and pruning materials should be replenished.
• Jatropha curcas agronomy research should focus on the response of Jatropha
(and intercrop) productivity to resources (fertilization and water) and pruning.

Social issues

Food security
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Jatropha Assessment | November 2010
Food security is influenced by a variety of factors; food availability, food access,
food utilisation and food stability (UN 2008). None of the studies investigated all
linkages. The most comprehensive study is a study by the FAO on biofuel crop
production and food security in Tanzania. They found no significant negative
impact (FAO 2010). They concluded that even a slight increase of current yields
will offset any effect on food security. Food security can however be negatively
impacted when the cultivation of food crops is replaced by Jatropha and the
market for Jatropha seeds is not present. This happened so far in two known
cases, one in Honduras and one in Brazil (Ariza-Montobbio and Lele 2010a; Finco
and Doppler 2010). This also shows that converting current areas that are used for
food production into Jatropha may have negative impacts and should therefore be
avoided.

Local prosperity
Local prosperity is determined by the benefits the local population receives, either
from the use of Jatropha products, or from the production (and selling) of seeds.
Especially the availability of Jatropha oil for local communities and special
equipment in which the oil can be used (leading to increased energy access), has
a positive effect. However, there are socio-organisational issues that have to be
taken into account. Furthermore the effects of Jatropha production on poverty
levels (purchasing power), local employment, local economy and skills and
attitude are analysed. Employment levels vary according to the business model
used. Plantations normally generate more direct labour, while farmer centred
models reach more people. The difficult financial situation of some Jatropha
companies can have a negative impact on the attitude of the local communities. A
gradual scaling up of the organisation could lead to a more sustainable operation.

Labour/working conditions
No child labour occurrence has been reported. Also most Jatropha companies and
projects seem to give additional benefits to their employees.

Land rights
Land conflicts are very common in developing countries, especially Africa.
Reoccurring issues when obtaining administrative land rights of large plots of land
are; previous land use, compensation and transparency. Having a neutral broker
who serves as a liason between investor and community can help in creating a
good deal for the community and a clear understanding on both sides. In a
smallholder model system, land issues have a less direct impact. It has been
reported however, that in some cases the situation of vulnerable groups
deteriorated. This was caused by land pressure (Salfrais 2010). It is important to
check the situation of land pressure before promotion of Jatropha should take
place. But, on a smaller scale, planting Jatropha as a fence can also help to reduce
land boundary conflicts, especially when the neighbours are involved when the
lines are delineated (Salfrais 2010).

Gender
Gender issues for Jatropha have not been looked at in great detail so far.
Harvesting Jatropha is normally a women’s task and often more technical tasks,
such as driving tractors and processing, are executed by men. However, the
impact of a labour force of e.g. 10,000 (mainly women) workers, is unclear.
Women could as well be trained for higher skilled jobs. In one case in
Mozambique, it was observed that favourable working hours at the plantation,
enabled women to keep tending their household plots where they often cultivate
food crops for their own consumption (Peters 2009). The availability of Jatropha oil
for domestic use (cooking and lighting) could benefit especially women.
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