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CONTESTATIONS IN CONTEMPORARY SOUTHEAST ASIA Islamism and the Quest for Hegemony in Indonesia Luqman Nul Hakim Contestations in Contemporary Southeast Asia Series Editors Vedi Hadiz, Asia Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia Jamie S. Davidson, Department of Political Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore Caroline Hughes, Kroc Institute for Int’l Peace Studies, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA This Palgrave Macmillan book series publishes research that displays strong interdisciplinary concerns to examine links between political conflict and broader socio-economic development and change. While the emphasis is on contemporary Southeast Asia, works included within the Series demonstrate an appreciation of how historical contexts help to shape present-day contested issues in political, economic, social and cultural spheres. The Series will be of interest to authors undertaking single country studies, multi-country comparisons in Southeast Asia or tackling political and socio-economic contestations that pertain to the region as a whole. Rather uniquely, the series welcomes works that seek to illuminate prominent issues in contemporary Southeast Asia by comparing experiences in the region to those in other parts of the world as well. Volumes in the series engage closely with the relevant academic literature on specific debates, and include a comparative dimension within even single country studies such that the work contributes insights to a broader literature. Researchers based in Southeast Asian focused institutions are encouraged to submit their work for consideration. Luqman Nul Hakim Islamism and the Quest for Hegemony in Indonesia Luqman Nul Hakim Department of International Relations Gadjah Mada University Sleman, D.I., Yogyakarta, Indonesia ISSN 2661-8354 ISSN 2661-8362 (electronic) Contestations in Contemporary Southeast Asia ISBN 978-981-19-9660-3 ISBN 978-981-19-9661-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9661-0 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: © Planet Observer gettyimages This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore For Ishtar, Arkan and Winda Acknowledgements In the research and writing of this book, I owe a debt of gratitude to many individuals and institutions, from whom I may never fully repay. I am deeply grateful to Vedi Hadiz and Adrian Little from the University of Melbourne, whose guidance, mentorship and encouragement allowed me to turn my research project into a doctoral thesis and, subsequently, into this book. Insightful comments and suggestions from the reviewers, Robert W. Hefner, Salman Sayyid and Palgrave’s anonymous reviewer, were crucial for developing and strengthening the arguments of this book. My thanks also go to Jacqui Baker and Shahar Hameiri at the Asia Research Centre, Murdoch University, who had been supportive in the early stages of my research before I moved to the University of Melbourne. Most of all, I owe my deepest gratitude to Vedi Hadiz and his family, whose assistance had gone beyond academic matters. I was fortunate to have benefited from the advice and encouragement from numerous colleagues and friends. At the Asia Research Centre of Murdoch University, I would like to mention Kevin Hewison, Garry Rodan, Richard Robison, Ian Wilson, Jane Hutchison and Jeffrey Wilson. Fellow postgraduates of the Centre have constantly provided me with valuable support and friendship: Fabio Scarpello, Airlangga Pribadi, Rebecca Meckelburg, Diswandi, Nurul Aini, Charlotte Min Ha Pham, Lian Sinclair, Hikmawan Saifullah, Jely Galang, Agung Ward- hana, Charan Bal and Lisa Woodward. At the Asia Institute of the University of Melbourne, I would like to thank Dave McRae, Andrew vii viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Rosser, Edwin Juriens, Ken Setiawan, Richard Chauvel, Lewis Mayo, Abdullah Saeed, Robyn Borg, Cathleen Benevento and Leena Sookra- manien. I would also like to acknowledge fellow postgraduate students and good friends: Wawan Masudi, Nanang Kurniawan, Kylie Moore- Gilbert, Hellena Souisa, Primatia Romana, Randy Nandyatama, Bahrudin, Zhenjie Yuan, Taotao Zhao, Asako Saito, Karin Yu Qiao, Selina Ho, Sonja Petrovich, Scott Paton, Qiuping Pan, Yao Song, Diatyka Yasih, Qianjin Zhang, Jovana Marjanovic´, Yilu Yang, Laurence Castillo, Behzad Zerehdaran, Tarek Makhlouf and Abdil Mughis. It is necessary to acknowledge that the research for this book would not have been possible without the Australia Awards (AAS) scholar- ship. Additional financial support was also generously provided by the University of Melbourne’s Fieldwork Grant and the Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Universitas Gadjah Mada. Continuous encouragement, especially from Mohtar Mas’oed, Poppy Winanti and Nur Rahmat Yuliantoro, had been essential throughout my doctoral study. I also benefited from my colleagues and friends at Universitas Gadjah Mada, especially at the Department of International Relations, Centre for Secu- rity and Peace Studies (CSPS) and the Institute of International Studies (IIS). In particular, I would like to thank Frans Djalong and his family for their support and inspiration and my beloved friend, the late Dana Hasibuan (1988–2018). Many individuals have contributed enormously to this research project during the fieldwork and publication process. Their generosity in providing me with valuable information, time and hospitality has been crucial—they have become a new network of friendship. In particular, Eko Haryadi Ismail and his family deserve my tremendous appreciation for his support when I was conducting my field research in Jakarta and its surrounding areas. The tireless work and patience of the staff at Palgrave, particularly Vishal Daryanomel and Naveen Dass, have been instrumental in the publication process. Above all, I would like to express my gratitude to my parents and family for their unwavering support and blessing. Last but not least, I thank my partner, Winda, who has always filled my days with love, patience and joy. My beloved kids, Arkan and Ishtar, have been the source of motivation for completing this book in a time of the COVID-19 global pandemic. I dedicated this book to them. Yogyakarta 20 February 2022 Contents 1 Islamism in Indonesia: Setting the Stage 1 Islamism and the Epistemological Critique 7 Islamism as Ideology 8 Islamism as Culture 10 Islam and Institutionalism 12 New Departures: From Political-Economic Conditions to Hegemonic Struggles 14 Political Economy of Islamism 15 Islamism as Discourse 17 Outline of the Book 20 Bibliography 24 2 Islamism and the Politics of Hegemony 29 The Ontology of the Social: Hegemony and Social Transformation 31 Contentious Issues 33 Politics of Hegemony and the Studies of Islamism 36 Gramsci’s Breakthrough 39 Dislocation, Islamism, Hegemony: Towards a New Framework 42 Discourse as Conceptual Category 47 Linking Discursive Formation to Structural Conditions 49 Conclusion 54 Bibliography 55 ix x CONTENTS 3 Islamism and the Making of Indonesia 61 Dislocations and Anti-Colonial Discourses: Islamism, Communism, Nationalism 63 Islamism and Anti-Colonial Outlooks 65 The Rise and Fall of Islamist Hegemony: Sarekat Islam and Its Adversaries 72 Pancasila as a Foundation: Islamic Nationalism Versus Secular Nationalism 78 Islamism and the Postcolonial Nation-State Formation 82 Pancasila Versus Islam: Islamism and Parliamentary Politics, 1949–1957 85 Politicising Identities, Coopting Representation: Islamism and the Guided Democracy, 1957–1965 89 Conclusion 93 Bibliography 94 4 New Order and the Politicisation of Islam 101 Islamism and the New Order Formation 103 Anti-communism and the Regime Change 104 Islam in the New Order Discourse: Strategies of Exclusion and Accommodation 106 In Search of a Political Format: Pancasila Democracy and Developmentalism 110 Disciplining Islamism and New Order Developmentalism: The Consolidation Period 112 Universalising Pancasila Democracy: A Master Signifier 113 Islamic Developmentalist Subjects 117 Islamism and the New Order’s Hegemonic Crisis: The Negotiation Period 123 Pancasila as the Sole Ideology: Three Forms of Islamism 124 Islamism in the ‘Political Openness’: Towards the New Order’s Hegemonic Crisis 128 Political Unravelling and Soeharto’s Fall 133 Conclusion 137 Bibliography 138 5 Islamism and Its Hegemonic Failure in Democratising Indonesia 145 Political Liberalisation and Fragmented Islamism 148 The Islamists and Political Representation 148