IRRIGATION IN INDIA

294 Pages·2011·9.85 MB·English

- Lamb.
Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 87 Series I, Irrigation, 15
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DlKECTOB
IRRIGATION IN INDIA
(SECOND EDITION)
BY
M. WILSON
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1903
PUBLICATIONS OF UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.
The publications of the United States Geological Survey consist of (1) Annual Reports; (2)
Monographs; (3) Professional Papers; (4) Bulletins; (5) Mineral Resources; (6) Water-Supply
and Irrigation Papers; (7) Topography Atlas of the United States, folios and separate sheets
thereof; (8) Geologic Atlas of United States, folios thereof. The classes numbered 2, 7, and 8
are sold at cost of publication: the others are distributed free. A circular giving complete lists
may be had on application.
The Bulletins, Professional Papers, and Water-Supply Papers treat of a variety of subjects,
and the total number issued is large. They have therefore been classified into the following
series: A, Economic geology; B, Descriptive geology; C, Systematic geology and paleontology;
D, Petrography and mineralogy; E, Chemistry and physics; F, Geography; G, Miscellaneous;
H, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water storage, K, Pumping water; L, Quality of water; M, General
hydrographic investigations; N, Water power; O, Underground waters; P, Hydrographic
progress reports. Complete lists of series I to P follow. (WS=Water-Supply Paper; B=Bulle-
tin; PP=Professional Paper.) The following Water-Supply papers are out of stock and can
not be supplied: Nos. 1-14,19, 20,29-33, 46,57-64.
SERIES I IRRIGATION.
[See last page pf this cover.]
SERIES J WATER STORAGE.
WS 33. Storage of water on Gila River, Arizona, by J. B. Lippincott. 1900. 98 pp., 33 pis.
WS 40. The Austin dam, by Thomas U. Taylor. 1900. 51 pp., 16 pis.
WS 45. Water storage on Cache Creek, California, by A. E. Chandler. 1901. 48 pp., 10 pis.
WS 46. Physical characteristics of Kern River, California, by F. H. Olmsted, and Reconnaissance
of Yuba River, California, by Marsden Manson. 1901. 57 pp., 8 pis.
WS 58. Storage of water on Kings River, California, by J. B. Lippincott. 1903. 100 pp., 33 pis.
WS68. Water storage in TruckeeBasin, California-"Nevada, by L.H. Taylor. 1903. 90 pp.. 8 pis.
WS 73. Water storage on Salt River, Arizona, by A. P. Davis. 1903. 54 pp., 25 pis.
WS 86. Storage reservoirs of Stony Creek, California, by Burt Cole. 1903. 62 pp., 16 pis.
The following paper also should be noted under this heading: Reservoirs for irrigation, by
J. D. Schuyler, in Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV.
SERIES K PUMPING WATE
WS 1. Pumping water for irrigation, by Herbert M. Wilson. 1896. 57 pp., 9 pis.
WS 8. Windmills for irrigation, by E. C. Murphy. 1897. 49 pp., 8 pis.
WS 14. Tests of pumps and water lifts used in irrigation, by O. P. Hood. 1898. 91 pp., 1 pi.
WS 20. Experiments with windmills, by T. O. Perry. 1899. 97 pp., 12 pis.
WS 29. Wells and windmills in Nebraska, by E. H. Barbour. 1899. 85 pp., 27 pis.
WS 41. The windmill; its efficiency and economic use, Pt. I, by E. C. Murphy. 1901. 72 pp.,
14 pis.
WS 42. The windmill, Pt. II (continuation of No. 41). 1901. 73-147 pp., 15-16 pis.
SERIES L QUALITY OF WATER.
WS 3. Sewage irrigation, by George W. Rafter. 1897. 100 pp., 4 pis.
WS 22. Sewage irrigation, Pt. II, by George W. Rafter. 1899. 100 pp., 7 pis.
WS 72. Sewage pollution in the metropolitan area near New York City, by M. O. Leighton.
1903. 75pp., 8 pis.
WS 76. Observations on the flow of rivers in the vicinity of New York City, by H. A. Pressey.
1903. 108 pp., 18 pis.
WS 79. Normal and polluted waters in northeastern United States, by M. O. Leighton. 1903.
192pp.
[Continued on third page of cover.]
IRR 87 2
and Irrigation Paper No. 87 Series I, Irrigation,
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SUEVEY
CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DlBECTOB
IRRIGATION IN IKDIA
(SECOND EDITION)
Water Resources Branch,
Geological Survey,
Bos 3106, CapilolStation
Oklahoma City, Okla.
HERBERT M. WILSON
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT FEINTING OFFICE
1903
CONTENTS.
Page.
Preface-.-.........-.--f------------------------------------------------- 7
Preface to second edition ---_--_---_-______________-_--____.__-____.__-__ 9
Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 11
List of works on Indian irrigation _.____.__--_-___--_-.-__-.-___.--_-- 25
CHAPTER I. Finance and statistics. _-_-__-____-_.-_-_-_--_---_-_-____-__. 29
Value and necessity of irrigation __._._.__.__,__._^_____._____,.___.._ 29
Land and crops..______.._-_-______.,_____._._______-_-_______-_-.--___ 35
CHAPTER II. Topography, meteorology, and forestry.__.._._............. 39
Topography and geology _____________________________________________ 39
Meteorology -__--_-___________.____________.______-_-___._---_____.._ 43
Forestry..........._.._._.........._...__.. ..__..._..._......_..... 45
CHAPTER III. History and administration -___.---_-_ _-._-_-__-__-.-_.-_ 47
History of irrigation works ..--..-.-_..._..-.-.---._--_----_-_-___... 47
Administration and legislation _______________________________________ 48
CHAPTER IV. Extent and character of irrigation _________________________ 56
Classes of works--_------_.--__-_---__-.-^_------_-------_---_--_-.-. 56
Extent of irrigation -_-_-_.-.-_-____-_,_______----_-__-_-_--_-_--.-_-_ 57
Financial and agricultural results ---__-_-_.-_--_-__--.----_--------_. 58
CHAPTER V. Alkali and duty.___________________________________________ 63
Objections to irrigation ______________________________________________ 63
Water duty and evaporation _._-_-____-____-_-__-_-__-_----_-_--_-_-. 67
CHAPTER VI. Wells, inundation and deltaic canals.----------___---_-_._- 75
WeUs __.._-._____-__._-_.._-__.__________________________________..__ 75
Inundation canals .____.______.____ _____________.________,__________ 78
Deltaic canals _______________________________________________________ 81
CHAPTER VII. Perennial canals _________________________________________ 88
Source of supply.____________________________________________________ 88
Ganges canal, Northwest Provinces _-_-__---__-_-__-__---_.-.-_-_--.- 89
Lower Ganges canal, Northwest Provinces ______.____...._1______.___ .93
Agra canal, Northwest Provinces __--_-__-_._.______.__-_______._--_- 95
Sirhind canal, Punjab _._....'......._.._.._......_._..__..-.__._..._. 97
Chenob, Bari Doab, and Western Jumna canals, Punjab__..^......... 99
Sidhnai canal, Punjab -.-.--._.-..._...-.._.-....-..-.-.-..-.-_.-.-..- 100
Soane canals---__---_--.-.--.-.-.._.-..._-_-.._--_._.--..-----.----. 101
Cross section, slope, and alignment.._..___._.,-_--__.-...._.._.-__.._ 104
Head-works _--.---.---.-.-_.-.-.._.-._....-....-.._....-.-.-..-.-... 107
Weirs ......!...._. __,_...........__.......__,__...-......-_.-._..... 109
Scouring sluices ..--_,_..._..._-..._._.._.....-.-.........--._......_ 119
Canal regulators.-..._.-................_....._....___......_,........ 124
Well foundations----------------.--..._.--.------...----.----.---... 130
Escapes ---.-_-.--_-..----.-.-.__.........-..._-_-....-.,-.-........_. 132
Falls and rapids ---.-..----.----..---..-._..__--.-.--.-...-.._....._. 134
Drainage works ............_........_......_.........._._........... 137
Distributaries __..., .__...-._-..._._,..........._................._. 144
Methods of applying water..-.-...-._.._........._ ._.-.-.--......... 150
3
4 CONTENTS.
Page.
CHAPTEB VIII. Storage works -.__--_-__-_---_------_---__.-- ---------- 153
Classes of works..----------- __--_.--___-__------_--__-.-__---__-__-- 153
Reservoirs....__-___--___--_.______--.---..----_--_.---_-------------- 159
Mutlia project ..._. --._....-.._...-_-...--_,..-_-.-.-----------_ 160
Nira project-...--...--..._---.....-----..-__-..._----_.--------- 163
Betwa project _....._--...__.._......----.--....-..---_---.._---- 173
Periyar project _-------_---_.---_-_.--._-------------..----------- 181
Tansa reservoir___-__.-.___ __.-.__--._--------. ._--._-..-.-..__ 187
Masonry dams. -.--...._-.-........--...--......---..---.-----..----. 188
Design of dams and weirs --._..-..-----.-.-_--.----.-_-_---.---..--.. 191
Cost of labor and material- -.........-..-----__------...--.----..----- 193
Tanks............................................................... 196
Ekruk tank..................... ............................._.. S05
Ashtitank ......_......._..............._...._..._.............. 306
Tank dams--.---.--.-.-..---...-.-------.-------.------..------_--.- 211
Combined storage and canal systems __-.--.--.----._-_._.-..-.---..-- S14
Palar anicut system.. ________.____._______-__--.____-__-__-.-.--_ 314
Russellkonda tank, Rushiktilya project.._--.--.-.-.--.-----.---.. S17
Zhara Karez irrigation project----------------------------------- 318
CHAPTBB IX.
River training and land reclamation:
River conservancy....- __________________________________________ 320
Land reclamation-..---_--_--.---.------_----_---__---_---__-_-.- 225
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
PLATE I. Map of India ^..................... ............................ 11
II. Aden tanks, Arabia ............................................ 22
in. Mot _____._________._____._______.__-._- -- --- -- --- 74
IV. A, Persian wheel; B,Pa£tcotia,h ................................ 76
V. A, Kistna aniciit, with river in moderate flood; B, Head-sluices
of eastern channel from Kanigiri reservoir.-...-._.--.-..-.._ 84
VI. Kanigiri reservoir escape........................................ 86
VTI. Gopalpur bifurcation, Ganges canal ..^.................L....... 92
VHI. Sirhind canal system._._.__.-_.-.....----_.------._...-.--..... 98
IX. Soane canal system, Bengal ....^............................... 102
X. Cross sections of modern weirs ................................. 112
XI. Narora weir, Lower Ganges canal; plan of well foundations..... 114
XII. Narora weir, Lower Ganges canal; plan of superstructure-...-.- 116
XIII. Head-works, Lower Ganges canal, Narora..-..-..-.---.....---. 120
XIV. Sinking foundation wells, Nadrai aqueduct, Lower Ganges canal. 130
XV. Asafnagar Falls, Ganges canal ................................. 134
XVI. Solani aqueduct, Ganges canal .-......-.-.--.---......-.--.-..- 138
XVII. Ranipur superpassage, Ganges canal ............................ 140
XVTII. Rutmoo level crossing, Ganges canal --_..-..------.___--,.-.-_- 142
XIX. Bhatgur dam, Mra system, Bombay..--.--. _------.-----_-.----- 164
XX. A, Vir head-works. Nira system, Bombay; B, Kurra aqueduct,
Mra canaL--....---....-_...-.....-..._.....--.-.-..._.-._-.. 168
XXI. Main and subsidiary weirs, Nira system; Vir in great flood... _.. 170
XXII. Plan of Periyar project, Madras -.__--_-_--..-.._----..--_-..-_-, 180
XXIII. Periyar dam during construction ..-...-..-...-.-..--.-__-..--.- 182
XXIV. A, Foundation, Tansa dam; B, Carrying stones to build Tansa
dam.---..-_.-_.-.-....-._-.-.--._.---_.-........_.._..-----. 186
XXV. Natives building Tansa dam, Bombay ......-..........-_.-..-_. 188
XXVI. Ekruk tank...----._-----._.._..-.---.-....--._.._.--._.------- 204
XXVII. A, Russellkonda head sluice; B, Russellkonda dam ..-..-.....-.- 216
FIG. 1. Percolation and evaporation...._.-.-.---_--....-.---------_--.- 69
2. Paecottah -.--....----.-..__.-.....-. -_____-______.._.---_.._--_ 76
3. Persian wheel _________________________________________________ 77
4. Single mot -------..--.._...._.....__.-_.-.--...,_.-._.-_--.... 77
-. 5. Inundation canal heading in Dund ......--.--._........-.-_.._. 79
6. Kistna canal system ........................................... 84
7. Plan and profile of Ganges canal, Hard war to Roorkee _._...._.. 91
8. Thora Nnlla aqueduct, Soane canal -_--__-_--_--_-_---.---.--_- 102
9. Canal cross sections ---_..--_--....-..-._-.--.-_'.--_--.--...-_- 105
10. Three ancient weirs ...............................^............ 109
11. Plan of Soane weir. -..._...............-.......-...._-..-...._.. 114
12. Plan of head-works, Soane canals.------._--_-._---.--_-_-.-._-.- 115
13. Shutter on Soane weir ---..-_--._..._.--.-.--.-..........._.... 116
5
ILLUSTBATIONS.
FIG. 14 Sidhnai weir----..-.------..-------..-------.-----------.--------- 116
15. Sidhnai canal; section of river in line of dam_-_-__-__-----_---_- . 117
16. Details of temporary dams, Ganges canal heads ----------------- 118
17. Myapur dam, Ganges canal ............^.......-...-.-.------.-. 120
18. Head-works and weir training works, Ganges canal _ _.____-_-_-_ 121
19. Dropping the Soane automatic sluices -__--.----_-___-_-_-_-_-_-_ 123
20. Details of Sidhnai weir _--____---_--_-_._-_---___-_-_----------- 123
21. Regulating gates, Ganges and Jumna canals___.-_-_-_-__---.-_-- 125
22. Narora weir, Lower Ganges canal, detail of canal sluices. -.._-._. 126
23. Head-works, Ganges canal-._______-_-_-_-_---__.----__---------- 127
24. Regulating gates, Soane canal head-_-__-_-_- -_-_-_-_--__------- 128
25. Soane canal, automatic sluice gate............................... 129
26. Ogee and vertical falls, Ganges canal __._____-__-.___.______ _ - -. 134
27. Soane canals, Bengal; arrangement of branches and escape at
DirnwM---_-_-____.-.._--___-_------------------------------- 136
28. Rapids, Bari Doab canal _-_________---_--------------------_---- 138
29. Cross section of Solaiii aqueduct, Ganges canal. _______________ 139
30. Agra canal, cross section of Kushtik Fall _____________________ 142
31. Plan of Rutmoo crossing, Ganges caiiaL _.____-___.______-__---- 143
32. Kao Nulla siphon aqueduct, Soane canal. _______________________ 144
33. Longitudinal section of Nadrai aqueduct, Ganges canal _ _ ______ 145
34. Cross section of Nadrai aqueduct, Ganges canal-___-____--____--- 145
35. Plan of distributing head, Mutha canal, Bombay. _______ ____-_-. 148
36. Sasoon superpassage, Sirhind canal_-_-_---------.---------------- 149
37. Drainage map, showing arrangement of distributaries ------------ 154
38. Standard masonry outlet for distributaries, Punjab _ __. _________ 156
39. Plan of Mutha and Nira irrigation projects, Bombay. ____-_-___- 161
40. Plan and cross section of Bhatgur dam, Nira system, Bombay. _ _ 165
41. Reinolds automatic weir gate.-----_---_-_-_------_-----_------- 166
42. Section of automatic gates and crest Bhatgtir dam ________-.__-_- 167
43. Detail of automatic gate --____-_-_-_---._-.--------------------- 168
44. Plan of head-works, Nira canal, Vir.___-_-_.__-_-_---_---_------ 169
45. Plan and section of head, Nira canal. _._-_-_--_-_-_-_-_- __._._- 170
46. Nira canal; superpassage at siphon for Jewhar Nulla_._____.-_-_, ' 171
47. Betwa project; plan of dam and head-works ______ --------------- 175
48. Cross section, Betwa dam ..._____-____--_----_---------------_-- 176
49."Betwaproject, plan of regulator and scouring sltiices____________ 177
50. Automatic drop shutters, Betwa dam.-__-_-_______-_--------__-- 178
51. Shutter gates, Betwa dam._-_______.__-_-__---_---------------_- 179
52. Section of Periyar dam ._____._-__-._-.-_------------------------ 182
53. Periyar head-works, plan of dam and escape --------------------- 183
54. Taiisadam, Bombay......................^..-..-.-.---. -------- 186
55. Tansa project, longitudinal section of dam- -.___-___-_----------. 187
56. Profile of masonry dam, Molesworth's formula, ____________ _____ 192
57. Cross sections, earth and combined dams __-._._-_______.__---___ 198
58. Map showing Ashti tank -.__-_________--_-__---__------._--------- 207
59. Ashti tank dam.________ _ _ _____________.____._--__-.-_------- 208
60. Ashti dam slips........... _____________ _._-___._-_--_-_-_--- 213
61. Palar Anictit system -.__--___-_._._._-_-_-_----_--------- -------- 215
62. Palar Anicut system, plan and cross section ,..._.----.___,_ ____- 216
63. Zhara karez irrigation project, Beluchistan. ______________________ 218
64. Moncha Nulla karez __.._-______.--_ -------_-_-.--.------------- 219
65. Training works, Lower Ganges canal, Narora -._.....-.-_-.-..._ 222
66. Training works, Agra canal, Okhla_._-------_-.----.. .-_____ - 223
PREFACE.
In the following account of some of the more interesting and promi
nent irrigation works in India I shall confine my detailed descriptions,
as I did my observations, to the works which exist under conditions
similar to those in the United States, and shall refer only briefly to the
other though equally important features of the irrigation problem in
India.
I examined only the principal canals, navigable and nonnavigable,
and entirely neglected the deltaic and inundation canals, as there is
little or no probability that such works will ever be constructed in the
United States. Transportation by railways and wagon roads is so
easy and general all over our country that there is little likelihood
our canals will ever be made navigable; accordingly, though I saw
and examined several navigable canals, little reference will be made
to their features. The more important reservoirs and tanks were
examined, especially those under construction. Little will be said of
wells, though in the future improved methods of pumping will be used
in the United States.
India stands preeminent for her gigantic engineering undertakings.
No other country has so vast and so fertile an expanse of territory,
with such convenient slopes for the construction of canals, and at the
same time such an abundant water supply. In general there is great
similarity between the climate and topography of the great northern
plains of India and portions of our arid West, especially the eastern
slope of the Rocky Mountains and the great California Valley. Cen
tral India and the Deccan have many features in common with the
central portion of the arid region, particularly portions of northern
Arizona and southern Utah. The climate is as similar to that of our
Middle Western States as is the topography. The average annual pre
cipitation rarely exceeds 30 inches, while the precipitation during the
autumn, or rabi, crop varies between 2 and 6 inches.
This autumn crop is the one that will be generally considered and
discussed in this report, since during the time of its maturity the cli
matic conditions are very similar to those existing everywhere in the
arid regions of the United States. Two crops are annually grown in
India, one of which is sown in early spring at the beginning of the
monsoon or rainy season, and is called the summer or kharif crop.
7
8 PREFACE.
This crop depends little on irrigation for its maturing, as the greater
proportion of the rain of the entire year falls during the summer. In
the autumn, however, the rainfall is very light, and, as before stated,
the temperature and precipitation are both similar to those in the
West.
Though the conditions of government and people are so different in
India from those in America, many useful examples and lessons may be
drawn from the methodof administration and legislation practiced there,
as well as from the financial success or failure that has attended the
construction of their works. The conditions under which Americans
must undertake irrigation enterprises are not so different from those
existing in India and southern Europe as would at first appear. Any
works we may construct must depend for their utilization and revenue
on immigration, as they will be largely in a sparsely inhabited country.
In order to induce this immigration people must be convinced of the
benefits and utility of irrigation. Conditions similar to these exist
in portions of India where the most successful irrigation projects
have been Qarried out. Irrigation works have frequently been under
taken in portions of India that were already overpopulated. They
have rendered the land more fertile and sufficiently productive to sup
port nearly double the population which it was previously capable of
sustaining. This, too, has been accomplished despite the prejudices to
be overcome, and the difficulties encountered in inducing people to make
use of the water furnished; difficulties far greater than we would have
to contend with in inducing immigration to our arid West. A few of
the great canals of the Northwest Provinces and the Punjab were
undertaken in districts that were sparsely inhabited. These canals
are among those of India that have paid the largest interest on the
original outlay. Within ten years from their construction the country
was fully populated, although the immigration was often from remote
portions of India.
Any imperfections which may appear in this account of works ex
amined and in operation are in no way due to lack of assistance from
the engineers in authority. It is impossible to speak strongly enough
of the hospitality and kindness with which I was everywhere treated.
In fact, owing to the limited time at my disposal, the greatest diffi
culty experienced was to leave the hospitable guides and entertainers,
who were apparently willing to spend days in showing and explaining
the works they had in charge.
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
This account of some of the more important irrigation works of
India was first published in Part II of the Twelfth Annual Report of
the Director of the United States Geological Survey, for 1890-91. The
demands for this report were so great that the entire edition was
exhausted within a few years. Recently, and largely as a result of
the renewed activity in irrigation in the Western States through the
creation by Congress of the Reclamation Service of the United States
Geological Survey, there have been increased calls for this report.
At the instance of Mr. F. H. Newell, chief engineer of the Reclamation
Service, I have made a careful revision of this report from such avail
able data as I have succeeded in accumulating during the intervening
years. This edition is published as one of the series of Water-Supply
and Irrigation Papers of the Geological Survey.
Comparatively few new works have been built in India since 1890.
The Bhatgur and Tansa dams have been finished and are in success
ful operation with but slight modifications from the plans as previ
ously published. The great Peryiar project has been completed with
slight modifications. These changes are noted in the accompanying
text. In addition, the matter concerning inundation canals and that
descriptive of deltaic canals have been extended. Under the latter
head the Kistna project is described in more detail, as is the Sanga-
manicut project, both of which contain works which will interest
American engineers. Under title of "Tanks" the Rushikalya proj
ect is described, both because of the interest attached to the dam
and because it is a combined project including the diversion of water
from a running stream and its storage in a reservoir located at a
considerable distance from the canal head.
The most important feature of the revision is the bringing of all the
financial and statistical data concerning the more important works in
each province up to 1901, t le date of the last official Iftdian reports.
At the close of 1901 the area of India, including native States, was
1,559,603 square miles, the total population was 294,266,701, and the
total expenditure upon all (lasses of irrigation works by the Govern
ment of India had been $337,850,000. In the year 1900-1901 the ex-
penditures on account of ir igation amounted to 111,500,000 and the
revenues to $12,075,000, showing a profit of 7.5 per cent on the capital
outlay for construction. The total area cultivated in India the same
9