Irrigation and Aquaponics—Technologies to Improve

49 Pages·2015·1.86 MB·English

by  Paige Balcom

WISE JOURNAL OF PUBLIC POLICY
Irrigation and Aquaponics—
Technologies to Improve the
Quality of Life in Developing
Nations

A U.S. Policy Perspective

Paige Balcom
7/31/2015
Contents
Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Preface .......................................................................................................................................................... 4
About the Author ...................................................................................................................................... 4
About the WISE Program .......................................................................................................................... 4
About ASME .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................... 4
Table of Acronyms ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 6
The Problem .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Solutions ................................................................................................................................................... 6
Irrigation ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Aquaponics .......................................................................................................................................... 14
Why is Improving Agricultural Yields Important? ................................................................................... 20
International Development Background .................................................................................................... 22
Organizations Related to Food Aid ......................................................................................................... 22
Key Conflicts and Concerns ......................................................................................................................... 24
Policy Ideas & Evaluation ............................................................................................................................ 28
1. Aquaponics Pilot Project ................................................................................................................. 28
2. Aquaponics Farmer-to-Farmer ....................................................................................................... 29
3. Collect Aquaponics Statistics .......................................................................................................... 30
4. Increase Public Private Partnerships ............................................................................................... 30
5. Country-designed Funding .............................................................................................................. 31
6. Authorize Feed the Future .............................................................................................................. 32
7. Microfinance ................................................................................................................................... 33
8. International Aquaponics Board ..................................................................................................... 34
9. Collaborate with U.S. Agriculture Experts ...................................................................................... 34
Conclusion/Final Policy Recommendations ................................................................................................ 35
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................ 37
Appendix A: Agencies and People Contacted ............................................................................................. 44
Appendix B: Other Types of Irrigation ........................................................................................................ 45
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Executive Summary
One child dies every five seconds from hunger-related causes. [1] 805 million people—11% of
the world’s population—are chronically hungry. Hunger kills more people than malaria,
tuberculosis, and AIDS combined. [2] To compound the problem, 70% of the world’s freshwater
is already being used [3]—90% of it for agriculture. [4] In short, more food needs to be grown
using less water.
Investment in agriculture is five times more effective at reducing poverty than investment in any
other sector, [5] but only 4% of official development assistance is designated for agriculture. [6]
Irrigated land is twice as productive as rainfed land, but only 16% of the world’s crops are
irrigated. [7] The type of irrigation system is a major factor in water efficiency and farmers’
income potential. In many irrigation systems, only 45% of the irrigated water actually reaches
the crops. [7]
One water-saving solution is aquaponics, which is the fusion of aquaculture (growing fish) and
hydroponics (growing plants without soil). Aquaponics is an emerging industry with huge
potential—it is ten times more productive than conventional farming methods, [8] uses 75% less
energy than mechanized agriculture, and consumes 80-90% less water. [9] Plus, the fish provide
a protein source which many smallholder farmers lack.
Global food security is important to the U.S. because of national security, economic potential,
and many other reasons. Through the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the US
Agency for International Development (USAID), America is the world’s largest provider of food
aid. In 2010, Feed the Future was introduced as the U.S. government’s main initiative to combat
global hunger. It is a very successful program that has helped shift the focus of aid from giving
food to training and enabling farmers to improve their own agricultural productivity.
The major issues surrounding implementing irrigation and aquaponics in developing nations can
be summarized as a lack of capital, training, and distribution. [10] Aquaponics faces the
additional challenge of lack of data. The major organizations in international development, such
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as USAID, the UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), and the World Bank, have done
very little work regarding aquaponics in developing nations.
To address these issues I suggest the following policy recommendations:
 USAID should conduct an aquaponics pilot study in developing nations
 The USAID Farmer-to-Farmer program should solicit and fund proposals for aquaponics
 Existing agricultural surveys should collect aquaponics data
 To fund more irrigation and aquaponics proposals, more public-private partnerships
should be pursued
 Funding should be more country-driven
 Congress should authorize the Feed the Future program
This paper summarizes the current U.S. involvement in global food security, the technology
behind irrigation and aquaponics, and the policy challenges surrounding their implementation.
Finally, the paper makes policy recommendations to address these issues because policies
promoting irrigation and aquaponics can help achieve food and water security.

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Preface
About the Author
Paige Balcom is a rising senior at the University of New Hampshire (UNH) where she studies
mechanical engineering with a minor in applied math. She is President of the UNH Engineers
Without Borders chapter and traveled with the group to Uganda to implement a clean water
project. Paige studied at the Fulbright Summer Institute in Wales and has conducted research at
Leibniz Universität in Germany and at UNH. After helping invent and patent an anti-distracted
driving device, she appeared on the national television show, Shark Tank. Paige would like to
pursue a career combining engineering with international development.
About the WISE Program
The Washington Internships for Students of Engineering (WISE) program was founded in 1980
through the collaborative efforts of several professional engineering societies to encourage
engineering students to contribute to issues at the intersection of science, technology, and public
policy. The nine-week program allows students to spend the summer in Washington, D.C. to
gain exposure to the legislative and regulatory policy-making processes through meetings with
leaders in the Administration, federal agencies, Congress, and advocacy groups. In addition, each
student is responsible for independently researching, writing, and presenting a paper on a topical
engineering-related public policy issue that is important to the sponsoring society. For more
information about the WISE program, visit www.wise-intern.org.
About ASME
ASME helps the global engineering community develop solutions to real world challenges.
Founded in 1880 as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASME is a not-for-profit
professional organization that enables collaboration, knowledge sharing and skill development
across all engineering disciplines, while promoting the vital role of the engineer in society.
ASME codes and standards, publications, conferences, continuing education and professional
development programs provide a foundation for advancing technical knowledge and a safer
world.*
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank ASME for its support of the WISE program. The Faculty
Member-in-Residence, Dr. Kenneth Lutz, and ASME sponsor, Melissa Carl, deserve special
thanks for their extensive teaching on the policy process and valuable feedback on this paper and
presentation. Additional thanks to Roy Chrobocinski, James Creel, Paul Fakes, Reese Meisinger,
Kathryn Holmes, and Julie Walker at ASME. The author would also like to thank Biniam Iyob,
Shivaun Leonard, and David Atwood at USAID for generously sharing their knowledge and
providing informational resources.

* Description from the ASME website: https://www.asme.org/about-asme/who-we-are/mission-vision-and-
strategic-focus
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Table of Acronyms
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
CDCS Country Development Cooperation Strategies
F2F Farmer-to-Farmer
FAA Foreign Assistance Act
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FFPA Food for Peace Act
FTF Feed the Future
ISIS Islamic State of Iraq and Syria
MCC Millennium Challenge Corporation
NGO Non-governmental organization
PPP Public-private partnership
SPSP Special Program Support Project
UN United Nations
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USTDA United States Trade and Development Agency

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Introduction
The Problem
“Hunger kills more people every year than malaria, tuberculosis, and AIDS combined. One in six
children in the developing world is underweight. Approximately 805 million people suffer from
chronic hunger.” [2] That is 11% of the world’s population. One child dies every five seconds
from hunger-related causes. [1] Each year, poor nutrition causes nearly half (45%) of deaths in
children under five. [11] Ninety-eight percent of hungry people (791 million) live in developing
countries. [2]
There are two types of malnutrition: protein-energy malnutrition and micronutrient deficiency.
The world hunger statistics only consider the first type, which is a lack of calories and protein.
The latter type of malnutrition is a lack of essential vitamins and minerals. [12] Especially in
developing countries where starches, such as maize and cassava, are prevalent, it can be difficult
to obtain vitamin-rich vegetables.
To compound the hunger problem, 70% of the world’s freshwater is already being used, [3] and
agriculture accounts for approximately 90% of it. [4] The global population is estimated to reach
9.6 billion by 2050 [13], so more food must be grown using less water. Sub-Saharan Africa is
already importing food, and its population is expected to more than double by 2050. [14] Sub-
Saharan Africa and developing nations as a whole face extreme challenges in feeding their
people. Thankfully, solutions are available through a combination of technology and policy.
Solutions
Irrigation and aquaponics are two proven technologies for increasing agricultural productivity.
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to crops, and aquaponics is a system to grow fish
and plants without soil. While other solutions, such as genetically engineered seeds, improved
crop practices, and soil quality management, exist, they are outside the scope of this paper.
Additionally, this paper focuses on solutions for smallholder farmers in developing nations;
commercial scale systems are not considered.
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Irrigation
Irrigation is the use of technology to distribute water over fields. According to the United
Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), “irrigated land is more than twice as
productive as rainfed cropland,” and “only 16 percent of the world's croplands are irrigated, but
those lands yield some 36 percent of the global harvest.” Figure 1 shows a map of irrigation used
throughout the world. In developing nations in particular, irrigation enables farmers to grow
high-value cash crops. [15]

Figure 1: Percentage of area equipped for irrigation (AEI) that is actually irrigated [16]
There are various types of irrigation systems ranging from traditional designs thousands of years
old to modern mechanized systems. Irrigation technologies can be divided into three major
categories: surface, sprinkler, and miscellaneous. A few types of irrigation systems are
highlighted below, and more designs are discussed in Appendix B.
Surface Irrigation
Surface irrigation, also called flood irrigation, was used in ancient times, and it still accounts for
90-95% of irrigation used today. [17] The approach is very inexpensive and easy to implement,
but it is by far the least efficient irrigation method—only about half the water actually reaches
the crops. [18] Water is often lost through evaporation and soil absorption, especially if canals
are used to bring the water to the fields. Surface irrigation can be divided into three main types:
basin, furrow, and border irrigation. [19] The appendix describes these three types in more detail.
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Figure 2: Flood Irrigation [20]
Flood irrigation can be made more efficient by leveling the fields, applying the water in
intervals, and collecting and recycling the surface runoff. Lining canals with a non-porous
material, such as concrete, brick, or plastic, can on average save 20% of the water used for
irrigation. [19] Still, 90-95% of irrigation used today [17] is the least efficient type of irrigation.
Sprinkler Irrigation
Sprinklers are a more modern, mechanized form of irrigation. Solid-set sprinklers, drip irrigation,
and center pivots are some of the main types of sprinkler irrigation.
Solid-set sprinklers are set up throughout the field and manually moved throughout the crops.
However, solid-set are not very efficient [21] because they require high energy inputs to achieve
the high pressure necessary to spray the water. Sprinklers also have non-uniform overlap—some
parts of the field are watered by two sprinklers while other parts receive no water. Sprinklers are
labor intensive and require wise management to know when and where to move the sprinklers.
Often, the land is over-irrigated and not properly drained. The ground becomes water-logged,
and salt builds up in the soil, making it infertile. [22]

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Figure 3: Solid-Set Sprinklers [23]
A different type of sprinkler is drip-feed irrigation, where tubes are laid out through the fields
next to the roots of the plants. The tubes can run above or below ground, and water flows out of
the tubes through perforations, emitters, or orifices. [19] Most systems are gravity-fed through a
raised storage tank at the top of the field. [23] If implemented correctly, drip irrigation can be
efficient, such as Israel’s renowned drip-feed systems.

Figure 4: Drip Irrigation [23]
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